tute, relate to mathematics, the necessity of better public instruction, and various political and philosophical subjects. His whole life was devoted to learning, and to the welfare of mankind. He adopted the principles of the revolution, and served as a captain in the army of the Rhine; but, when the national convention made known to the armies the condemnation of Louis XVI, in 1793, he declared his disapprobation of it, and was, on that account, deprived of his office, and imprisoned 14 months. He was afterwards set at liberty, employed in the department of war, and finally returned to the army of the Rhine. The loss of a leg did not prevent him from engaging in the expedition to Egypt, as chief of the corps of engineers.—2. His brother Augustus, lieutenant-general, born in 1766, served first in the Sardinian troops, and afterwards in almost all the campaigns of the revolutionary war, under the standard of France. In 1804, Napoleon sent him to Rome to induce the holy father to go to France, to anoint him at his coronation. He was then made governor of the Tuileries, received a command in the army, and was, from 1806 to 1810, minister of war in the kingdom of Italy, and afterwards in active service in the war in Spain. Napoleon gave him the command of the first military division during the "hundred days." CAFFÉ, Daniel; a painter in crayons; born at Kustrin, 1750. After having passed his childhood and youth in want, he left a comfortable office from his love to painting, and was received, at the age of 32 years, as a pupil of the academy of painting in Dresden. Here he studied, chiefly, the pictures of Mengs, and soon acquired a great reputation by his portraits. He also established a manufactory of crayons. He copied many pictures in the galleries of Dresden, with a vigor and warmth uncommon in a painter in crayons. He died in 1815.

CAFFILA; a company of merchants or travellers who join together for security, in some eastern countries. It differs from the caravan by being in the employ of some sovereign or company, while the former is composed of merchants trading

each on his own account.

CAFFRARIA; a name adopted, by the Portuguese, from the Arabs, who called all the African continent, southward from Sofala (their most southerly settlement), the land of Cafirs (infidels). It was first applied to the whole width of the continent, from cape Corrientes on the east to cape Negro on the west. As the names

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of particular states and people became known, the extent of C. diminished; and the term is now applied only to the territory on the north-eastern borders of the Cape Colony. C. is but imperfectly known. (See Caffres.)

CAFFRES. In the south-eastern part of Africa, there is a race distinguished from the Negroes by a larger facial angle (the head being formed like that of Europeans), a high nose, hair frizzled, but less woolly than that of the Negroes, and a brown or iron-gray complexion, differing from the shining black of that race. They have many Arab words in their dialects, and the custom of circumcision prevails among them. These people were called, by the Portuguese, Caffres, mistaking the Mohammedan term Cafir (heretics) for a national appellation. It is now retained, by geographical writers, to denote the savage tribes, whose physical characteristics have already been described, extending from Quiloa southward, and the Cape Colony eastward. The history, origin and actual extent of this race is unknown, and is reserved to instruct or confound future explorers in these unknown regions. In a more limited sense, this name has been given to the tribe whose true name is Koussas, living on the confines of the Cape Colony. They are a handsome, vigorous race, of simple habits, their principal food being milk in the form of curd. They use no salt: water is their only drink. They are all passionately fond of tobacco. Their dress is made of the skins of sheep. Ivory rings, worn on the left arm, are their chief ornaments. The women have their backs, arms and breasts furrowed by tearing up the skin with a sharp instrument. Both sexes paint the whole body red. Their dwellings are low, circular cabins, constructed by the women. Plurality of wives is allowed, but it is rare that they have more than two. Cattle are of the first importance, and the chief object of affection to a Caffre. They obey and follow their master like dogs. The ground is cultivated by the women. At the age of 12, the boys are appointed to the care of cattle, and exercised publicly in the use of the javelin and the club. The girls, under the inspection of the chiefs' wives, are taught to perform the work of the hut and the garden. The Caffres are of a peaceful disposition, but display great activity and skill in the use of arms, when necessary. Their weapons are the hassagay, the shield and the 'club. Previous to commencing hostili

ties, they send heralds to the enemy. They are fond of the chase, pursuing the lion and the elephant. Each horde has a hereditary and absolute chief. The cupidity of the English colonists has found pretences for depriving them of their finest territory (1821), now called Albany; and this lately kind and happy people seem destined to extinction, or to a miserable and degraded condition. (See Lichtenstein's Travels in Southern Africa.) CAFTAN; the well-known national dress of the Turks, in the form of a night-gown, and generally white, with pale-yellow flowers. It is made of woollen or silk, and sometimes lined with costly fur. Such caftans are presented as gifts, by the Turkish court, to the Christian ambassadors, or to other persons on whom a particular honor is to be conferred. And ambassadors, if they are not expressly permitted to appear in the dress of their nation, are compelled to wear a caftan at the audiences that are given them.

CAGLIA, cape. (See Matapan, cape.) CAGLIARI, the capital of the island of Sardinia, is situated on a hill near the sea. It consists of four parts,-1. the castle, on the top of the hill; 2. the Marina; 3. Estempache; 4. the Villa Nuova. It is strongly fortified, and is the residence of the viceroy, of an archbishop, and the seat of a university with 300 students, which was revived and remodelled in 1765. It contains a royal society for the promotion of agriculture, established in 1805, a museum of natural history, and one of antiquities. Population, 28,000. It has some manufactures. C. is the emporium of all the Sardinian trade. Here are the dock-yards and the quarantineground. Its spacious and safe harbor is defended by several forts.

CAGLIARI, Paul; known under the name of Paul Veronese; a painter of Verona, born, 1532. His father, who was a sculptor, wished to educate his son for the same profession; but the young man betrayed a greater inclination for painting, and was, therefore, placed under the care of his uncle, Antonio Badile, a painter. Under this able instructer, Paul made considerable progress; but, as the school of Verona already possessed distinguished artists, such as Forbicini, Giolsino, Ligozzi, Brusasorci and Farinato, he obtained, at first, but little celebrity. He went to Mantua and Vicenza, and afterwards to Venice. Here he imitated Titian and Tintoretto, but, at the same time, appeared desirous of surpassing them by a more studied elegance, and a richer va

riety of ornament. It soon became evident, from his works, that he had studied the casts of ancient statues, and the etchings of Parmesan and Albert Dürer. In his first great works, which are in the church of St. Sebastian, in Venice, his pencil is yet timid. The History of Esther, in fresco, which he afterwards painted in this church, excited general admiration; and the execution of important works was intrusted to him, among which are many that adorn the library of St. Mark's. He afterwards accompanied the Venetian ambassador Grimani to Rome, where he saw, with enthusiasm, the beautiful models of Raphael and Michael Angelo, and painted, after his return, his fine Apotheosis of Venice. His numerous banquetting pieces are also excellent. Six, at least, of these are found at Venice, in the refectories of the monasteries, among the best of which are the Marriage at Cana, comprising 120 figures, many of which are portraits, and the Feast of Christ with Simon. In the former piece, the extravagant display of Asiatic pomp, and the confusion of different persons and dresses, have been justly censured. In the latter, the air of pride in the aspect of Christ, instead of a simple expression of dignity, the placing of the principal personage in a corner of the picture, and the running into each other of the white table-cloth and the architecture of the background, have been considered blemishes. In his Pilgrims of Emmaus, Paul violated all the unities of time, place and action. But, with all these faults, he displays splendid talents and great fruitfulness of conception. His portraits are spirited and noble, and his coloring splendid. He died in 1588. His scholars were, Charles and Gabriel, his sons, and Benedetto, his brother, besides Michael Parrasio, Naudi, Maffei Verona, Francesco Montemezzano.

CAGLIOSTRO, Count of (real name Giuseppe Balsamo), was born in 1743, at Palermo. His father died when he was young, and he was educated by his maternal relations. He entered the order of the Brothers of Mercy, where he found an opportunity to cultivate his talents for medical science, by which he afterwards distinguished himself. But he showed, at the same time, a great love of dissipation, and was, at last, compelled to separate from the order. He returned to Palermo, where, among other tricks, he deceived some credulous persons by his pretended skill in magic and the finding of hidden treasures. He also showed

himself adroit in counterfeiting handwriting, and attempted to get possession of a contested estate by means of a forged document, but was discovered, and obliged to flee. He now determined to go to Rome, and, in his journey through Calabria, became acquainted with the beautiful Lorenza Feliciani, daughter of a beltmaker. She appeared to him intended by fortune to assist his designs. He formed an intimacy with her, and soon compelled her to assist in the accomplishment of his purposes by the loss of her virtue. They now began their travels, in which he assumed the character of a man of rank, first appearing under the name of the marquis Pellegrini, and finally under that of the count Cagliostro. He travelled through many countries of Europe, stopped in the capital cities, and, by his chemical mixtures, by his tricks, and by the amours of his lady, gained considerable sums. We find him in Madrid, Lisbon, Paris, London, and many other cities. He knew how to cheat with great ingenuity, and was always fortunate enough to preserve himself by an early flight, if men's eyes began to be opened, or waking justice threatened him with imprisonment. The discovery of the philosopher's stone, the preparation of a precious elixir vitæ, &c., were the pretences, under which he extracted from credulous people considerable sums in ready money. Many had recourse to his assistance, not, indeed, to be initiated into the mysteries of magic, but to purchase, at a high rate, different kinds of medicine, one of which was the water of beauty. This profitable business employed our hero many years; but, with the fading charms of his lady, many sources of wealth failed. His trade in medicine also began to grow less lucrative, and he determined to seek his fortune as the founder of a new and secret sect. In pursuance of this plan, he passed himself off, during his second residence in London, for a freemason, and played the part of a magician and worker of miracles, in which character he drew upon himself the eyes of all the enthusiasts in Europe. The countess C., on her part, did not remain idle. She was the first and most perfect scholar of her husband, and played the part of a priestess to this new order in as able a manner as she had before played that of a priestess to another goddess. His plan for reviving an old Egyptian order, the founders of which he declared to be Enoch and Elias, contained a mass of the greatest absurdi33

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ties and nonsense. But his pretensions to supernatural power, the mystery with which his doctrines were enveloped, his pretended ability to work miracles, his healing the sick without pay, with the greatest appearance of generosity, and the belief that, as the great Kophtha (this name he had taken, as the restorer of Egyptian masonry), he could reveal the secrets of futurity, gained him many friends and supporters. C. again travelled through Europe, and attracted great attention in Mittau, Strasburg, Lyons and Paris. While in this last city (1785), he had the misfortune to be implicated in the scandalous affair of the necklace, and was banished the country as a confidant of cardinal Rohan. He now returned to London, and sent many epistles to his followers, wherein he bitterly complained of the injury he had received in France, and painted the French court in the blackest colors. From London, where he could not long remain, he went to Bâle, and other cities in that quarter. But, at length, listening to the repeated entreaties of his wife and other friends, he returned (1789) to Rome. Here he busied himself about freemasonry; but, being discovered, and committed to the castle of St. Angelo, he was condemned, by a decree of the pope, to imprisonment for life, as a freemason, an arch-heretic, and a man very dangerous to religion. He died, in the summer of 1795, in the castle of St. Leo, a small city in the States of the Church. A biography of madame von der Recke, in the Zeitgenossen, No. xi, contains an account of C.'s residence in Riga, and his connexion with madame von der Recke; and in Casanova's memoirs there is some interesting information concerning him.

CAGNOLI, Anthony, astronomer, member of the French national institute, and president of the Italian academy of sciences, was born at Zante, and was attached, in his youth, to the Venetian embassy at Paris, where, after the year 1776, he showed more love for astronomy than for diplomacy. Having settled in Verona in 1782, he constructed an observatory ir his own house, by his observations in which he enriched the science of astronomy with many discoveries. After the destruction of his observatory by the French (1798), who, however, compensated him for his loss, his instruments were transferred to the observatory of Brera, in Milan, and he was appointed professor of astronomy in the military school at Modena. In 1814, he went

back to Verona, and died there in 1816. His best works are, Notizie Astronomiche adat. all' Uso comune (Modena, 1802, 2 vols., with plates); and his Trigonometria Piana e Sferica (2d edition, Bologna, 1804, with plates); translated into French by Chompré (2d edition, Paris, 1804, 4to.).

CAGOTS; an unfortunate race of men, resembling the Cretins. They are found in the south of France, near the Pyrenees. They are mostly poor beggars, performing the meanest offices, and covered with leprosy, king's evil, and vermin; confined to the coarsest food, wandering about without habitation, without clothes or fire in the depth of winter, barely covered with dirty rags, retiring, in the night, to barns and hovels; of a thin and pale aspect, generally mutilated, lamed in their limbs, despised, insulted, or pitied; cast out of the race of men as unworthy of life; given up to the most beastly excess, and accused of the most horrid crimes with which the human race can be stained. In former ages, they were shut out from society as lepers, cursed as heretics, abhorred as cannibals and pederasts; their feet were bored with an iron, and they were forced to wear an egg-shell on their clothes, by way of distinction. The very name of Cagot, which Scaliger derives from canis gottus, is a proof of the detestation in which they were held. Opinions are much divided with regard to the origin of this miserable race, living in the midst of a highly cultivated people. The most plausible conjecture is that which derives them from some northern barbarians, who migrated into the south of Europe in the 3d or 4th century. More accurate researches have established the fact, that they are not without capacity to become useful members of human society; and that, to accomplish this, it is only necessary to remove them from the condition in which they suffer so much misery and contempt, which alone would be sufficient to hinder them from developing their talents, if, indeed, they are inferior to those of other men.

CAHOES, or CAHOOS FALLS. (See Mohawk.)

CAHORS WINE is that wine which is used to improve the Pontac and other red French wines. It is consumed in Bourdeaux and other places, where the lighter and cheaper French wines find a ready market.

CAIAPHAS, a Jew, was the high priest at the time when Jesus Christ was crucified by the Romans. In the dismay which the resurrection of Lazarus pro

duced among the priests and Pharisees, he proposed the death of that obnoxious person (John, xi. 49, 50); and, when the officers of the Jewish hierarchy arrested Jesus, they carried him first to Annas, and then to C., from whom he was transferred to the hands of the civil authority. C. was deposed, A. D. 35, and Jonathan appointed in his stead.

CAIC, or CAIQUE; a skiff of a galley. It was pointed at both ends, and was 25 feet long by 6 broad and 24 deep._It went out of use with the galley. The name is now applied, in the Levant, and particularly in the Black sea, to small barks. (In the latter sea they are manned by Cossacks.) It is also used in the French navy for a small vessel.

CAICOS, or CAYOS; a cluster of small islands or rocks, called Little and Great Caicos, between Hayti, or St. Domingo, and the Bahama islands. The largest, called Grand Caico, is 60 miles long, and 2 or 3 broad. St. George's Key is the principal harbor. Population in 1803, 40 whites, and about 1200 slaves. Lon. 72° W.; lat. 21° 36′ N.

CAILAS, OF CAILASA; the loftiest ridge of the Himalaya mountains. (q. v.) On its eastern side is a remarkable peak, called the Lingam of Siva or Mahadeva, an object of great veneration to his votaries. It is the favorite abode of Siva, and blooms with eternal spring.

CAILLAUD, Frederic; a French traveller in Africa, who explored the situation of the ancient Meroe, and penetrated to the southern part of the kingdom of Sennaar. He travelled in Africa during the years 1819, 1820, 1821, and 1822. (See Meroë.)

CAILLÉ, René; a French traveller, and the only European who has returned from Timbuctoo or Ten-Boctoo. In 1819, he accompanied major Gray in his exploring expedition, and, being on the Senegal in 1824, determined to attempt to reach Timbuctoo and Jenna by his own exertions. Having adopted the Arabian dress, and embraced the religion of the country, he joined a caravan, and set out from Kakondi (Kokundi), April 19, 1827. He crossed the Joliba (Niger), and spent some time at Kankan, whence he travelled about 200 miles eastwardly, to Timé. Leaving this place, where he was detained five months by sickness, Jan. 10, 1828, and taking a northerly direction, he again fell in with the Joliba, March 10, and, crossing an arm of that stream, arrived at Jenna. Having embarked, March 23 on the Niger, and passed, on

his way, the lake Delo (misplaced, on the maps, under the name of Dibbie), he reached Timbuctoo April 20. Leaving this city May 4, he crossed the Great Desert, and reached Tafilet, July 23, whence he passed through Fez to Tangiers. Thus this intrepid young traveller, at the age of 28 years, has achieved alone, and by his own resources, what the exertions of powerful societies, the aid of governments, and the most devoted efforts of experienced travellers, had in vain attempted. This account is the substance of the report of a committee of the geographical society of Paris, by whom his accounts have been examined. The prize offered by that society to the first traveller who should reach Timbuctoo has been awarded to him; the king has bestowed on him the cross of the legion of honor, and 3000 francs, with a pension of 3000 francs for the years 1829 and 1830, to enable him to pursue the studies necessary to prepare him to renew his visit to those hitherto unknown regions.

CAILLE, Nicholas Louis de la, born at Rumigny, not far from Rosoy, in Thiérache, 1713, studied at the college at Lisieux, and wished to dedicate himself to the service of the church. But, at this time, his attention was directed to astronomy, and he carried the spirit of geotnetry into the scholastic philosophy, and even into theology, of which he wished to reform the language, and treat the propositions after the manner of Euclid. He soon renounced theology altogether. Cassini and Maraldi were his friends, and with them he drew up a description of the coast of France, from Nantes to Bayonne. On account of the accuracy and skill which he displayed in this operation, he was selected to take part in the verification of the meridian, which was then beginning to be a subject of interest. He began this great work April 30, 1739, and, in this year, finished all the triangles from Paris to Perpignan; measured the bases of Bourges, Rhodez and Arles; observed the azimuths and zenith distances of the stars at Bourges, Rhodez and Perpignan, and took the principal share in the measurement of the degree of longitude which terminates at the harbor of Cette. During the severe winter of 1740, he extended his triangles over the principal mountains of Auvergne, to connect with the meridian a new basis measured at Riom. The object of this excursion was to procure additional information for the purpose of clearing up the doubt which he entertained concerning the ba

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sis of Juvisy, measured by Picard in 1669. He had discovered and demonstrated that this basis was a thousandth part too long, from whence it follows, that the toise used by Picard was at least a line shorter than the toise of the academy. This assertion of his, so long contested, was now placed beyond doubt. During his absence, he was made professor of mathematics in the college of Mazarin, in consequence of which, the continuation of the meridian in the north was delayed till the next autumn. C. ended his surveys in the course of some months; during which he measured two bases more, and made the astronomical observations at Paris and Dunkirk. After his return, he commenced the calculations for which he had prepared the materials by these long operations, and, by a comparison of the different arcs which he had measured, he showed that the degrees increase from the equator to the poles a result diametrically opposite to the old measurement. His works on geometry, mechanics, astronomy and optics, which followed each other in a few years, show with what ability he discharged the duties of professor. His Ephemerides, and the numerous and able memoirs which he presented to the academy of sciences, and his calculations of the eclipses for 1800 years, in the first edition of his Art de verifier les Dates, prove with what ardor he pursued his astronomical studies. He had undertaken the correction of the list of stars, according to the method of corresponding heights. In 1746, he was in possession of an observatory erected for him at the college Mazarin. True to the laborious method which he believed the best, C. spent his days and nights, for 14 years, in making observations on the sun, the planets and the stars, to rectify the astronomical catalogues and tables. He had received the two six-foot sectors, with which he had verified the meridian of France. Desirous of observing the stars of the southern hemisphere, which never appear above the horizon at Paris, he formed the plan of a voyage to the cape of Good Hope. He saw immediately the advantage to be derived from this change of place, in determining the parallax of the moon, of Mars and Venus, and the refraction of the rays of light. Lalande (q. v.), then 19 years old, was sent to Berlin, which lies nearly under the same meridian as the cape, to take corresponding measures at the same time. This astronomical undertaking cost four years of journeys and labor. C. determined the