him constantly occupied. He was the first caliph that caused money to be coined. He died A. D. 705 (Heg. 86). Under Walid I, his son, the Arabs conquered, in the East, Charasm and Turkestan (A. D. 707, Heg. 88); in the North, Galatia (A. D. 710); and, in the West, Spain (A. D.711). (See Spain). He died in 716 (Heg. 97). His brother and successor besieged Constantinople, but his fleet was twice destroyed by tempests and the Greek fire. On the other hand, he conquered Georgia. He died 718 (Heg. 99). Omar II, his successor by Soliman's last will, incurred the displeasure of the Ommiades by his indulgence towards the sect of Ali, and was poisoned by them (A. D. 72, Heg. 102). Jezid II, his successor, also, by the disposition of Soliman, died of grief for the loss of a feinale favorite, of whose death he was the author (A. D. 723, Heg. 104.) The Alide Zeid, grandson of Houssain, now contested the caliphate with his brother Hescham. He was indeed overpowered, and put to death; but another house, the Abbassides, descendants of Abbas, son of Abdalmotaleh, uncle of the prophet, began to be formidable. Under Hescham, an end was put to the progress of the Saracens in the West, by the energy of Charles Martel, who annihilated their armies at Tours in 732, and at Narbonne in 736. The voluptuous Walid II was murL'ered after a reign of one year (A. D. 743, Heg. 124). After the equally brief reigns of Jezid III, and of the Abbasside, IbraAim, Merwan II followed, with the suraame (respectable among the Arabs) of the Ass (al Hemar). Ibrahim, being dethroned and imprisoned by this prince, appointed his brother Abul Abbas his successor, and was, shortly after, murdered in prison. Abdallah, Abul Abbas's uncle, now took up arms against the caliph, who was, at that time, fully occupied by a dangerous rebellion in Persia. Merwan was twice defeated, and fell (A. D. 752, Heg. 133). With him terminates the series of caliphs of the race of Ommiyah. The furious Abdallah treacherously destroyed almost all the Ommiades, by a horrible massacre at a meeting where they were all assembled. Two only escaped. Abderames fled to Spain, where he founded the independent caliphate of Cordova (see Spain); another to a corner of Arabia, where he was acknowledged as caliph, and his posterity reigned till the 16th century. Abul Abbas, although innocent of that cruel action, which secured him the throne, derived from it the name of Saffah (the Bloody). He died very soon, 18 years

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of age, of the small-pox (A. D. 753, Heg 134). His brother, Abu Giafar, called al Mansor (the Victorious), was obliged to contend with a rival in his own uncle, Abdallah, whom he, however, overcame. His avarice made him many enemies, whom he succeeded in suppressing by his perfidious cunning. He acquired his surname by his victories in Armenia, Cilicia and Cappadocia. In the year 764 (Heg. 145), he founded the city of Bagdad on the Tigris, and transferred thither the seat of the caliphate (A. D. 768, Heg. 149). He died on a pilgrimage to Mecca, leaving immense treasures (A. D. 775, Heg. 156). Mahadi, his son and successor, a man of a noble character, had to contend with the turbulent inhabitants of Chorasan, under the pretended prophet Hakem, and died A. D. 785 (Heg. 166); and Hadi, his grandson, met with the same opposition from the Ali party, under Houssain, Ali's great-grandson. Hadi caused the Zendists to be exterminated-a sect adhering to the doctrine of two principles of nature. According to the usual order of succession, and Mahadi's provision, Hadi was followed, not by his son, but by his brother Harun (A. D. 786, Heg. 167), who was denominated al Raschid, on account of his justice, and is famous for promoting the arts and sciences. He concluded a truce (an actual peace could never be made with Christians) with the Greek empress Irene (788, Heg. 169), who consented to pay him tribute. Jahir, an Alide, disputed with him the possession of the throne, but subsequently submitted. Harun, however, tarnished his reputation by the murder of Jabir, and still more by the murder of his sister Abbassah, and her favorite, the Barmecide Giafar, and by the expulsion and persecution of the whole family of the Barmecides, whose services to the state and himself had been of very great value. Harun divided the empire among his three sons. Al Amin, as sole caliph, was to reign over Irak, Arabia, Syria, Egypt, and the rest of Africa: under him, Al Mamun was to govern Persia, Turkestan, Chorasan, and the whole East; and Motassem was to rule Asia Minor, Armenia, and all the countries on the Black sea. brothers were to succeed Amin in the caliphate. At Thus, in Chorasan, through which Harun was passing, in order to quell a rebellion that had broken out in Samarcand, he was arrested by death, of which he had been forewarned by wonderful dreams (A. D. 809, Heg. 190). Al Amin the Faithful (his proper name was

The younger

Mohammed) was undeserving of this name. Untrue to his obligations as a ruler, and addicted to all kinds of sensuality, he left the discharge of his duties to his vizier, Fadhel. The vizier, from hatred of Mamun, persuaded the caliph to appoint his son his successor, and deprive Motassem of his portion of territory. A war arose between the brothers. Mamun's general, Thaher, defeated the armies of the caliphi, took Bagdad, and caused Amin to be put to death (A. D. 813, Heg. 194). Mamun was recognised as caliph. Nobler in his inclinations than Amin, he cherished the arts and sciences; but, like his brother, he left the government and armies to his ministers. His measures to secure the caliphate to the Alides, in order to please Riza, his favorite, excited the powerful Abbassides to an insurrection. They declared Mamun to have forfeited the throne, and proclaimed Ibrahim caliph, but submitted again, after the death of Riza, when the caliph had changed his sent ments. The vast empire of the Arabs, embracing numberless provinces in two quarters of the globe, could hardly be held under his sceptre. There is but one step, and that an easy one, under a weak sovereign, from a viceroyalty to a kingdom. The wisdom of the former Abbassides could only retard this evil; the faults of the latter precipitated it. Even under Harun al Raschid, the Agladides had founded an independent empire in Tunis (A. D. 800, Heg. 181), as had likewise the Edrisides in Fez. Thaher, having been appointed governor of Chorasan, made himself independent. From him the Thaherides derived their origin. Mamun sent Thomas, a Greek exile, with an army against the Greek emperor, Michael II, the Stammerer. Thomas depopulated Asia Minor, and laid siege to Constantinople; but a storm destroyed his fleet (A. D. 823, Heg. 207). A second attack on the imperial city was repelled by the aid of the Bulgarians. Thomas was taken prisoner, and executed. Towards the many religious sects, into which the Mussulmans were then divided, Mamun acted with toleration. He died A. D. 833 (Heg. 218). During his government (about 830, Heg. 215), the African Arabs conquered Sicily and Sardinia, where they maintained themselves about 200 years, till the former island was torn from them by the Normans, in 1035, and the latter island by the Pisans, in 1051. Motassem, at first named Billah (by the grace of God), Harun's third son, built a new city, Samara, 56 miles from Bagdad, and transferred

thither his residence. In his wars against the Grecks and rebellious Persians, he first used Turkish soldiers. From grief at the death of his private physician, Motassen becaine insane, and died A. D. 842, Ileg. 227. Vathek Billah, his son, member of the Motazelite sect, exerted imself to promote the advancement of science; but he was an enervated voluntuary, and died of nervous weakness (A.D. 846, Heg. 232). A contest for the succession, between his brother Motawackel and his son Mothadi, was decided by the already powerful and arrogant Turkish body-guard in favor of the most unworthy competitor, the former. Under Motawackel, it became more and more customary to carry on all wars by means of Turkish mercenaries. Thus the Arabs were rendered unwarlike and effeminate, as must necessarily be the case, in a hot climate, with those who do not live in constant activity. Motawackel manifested a blind hatred of the Alides, not sparing even the memory of the deceased. He moreover evinced a malignant spirit, and a proneness to sensuality and cruelty. His own son, Montassar, educated in the in`dulgence of both these vices, and often barbarously treated by him, conspired against him with the Turkish body-guards, and effected his murder (A. D. 861, Heg. 247). The Turks, who now arrogated the right of electing the caliphs, called the murderer to the throne of the faithful, and compelled his brothers, who were innocent of the atrocious act, and whose revenge they feared, to renounce the succession which had been designed for them by Motawackel. Montasser died, soon after, of a fever, caused by the goadings of remorse (A. D. 862, Heg. 248). The Turks then elected Mostain Billah, a grandson of the caliph Motassem. Two of the Alides became competitors with him for the caliphate. One of them, at Cufa, was defeated and put to death; but the other founded an independent empire in Tabristan, which subsisted half a century. The discord of the Turkish soldiers completed the dismemberment of the empire. One party raised to the throne Motaz, second son of Motawackel, and compelled Mostain to abdicate. Motaz Billah soon found means to get rid of him, as well as of his own brother, Muwiad. He then meditated the removal of the Turkish soldiers; but, before he found courage to execute his projects, they rebelled on account of their pay being in arrear, and forced him to resign the government. He soon after died (A.D.869, Heg.

255). They conferred the caliphate on Mohadi Billah, son of the caliph Vathek, but deposed this excellent prince, eleven months after, because he attempted to improve their military discipline. Under Motawackel's third son, the sensual Motamed Billah, whom they next called to the caliphate, his prudent and courageous fourth brother, Muaffek, succeeded in overcoming the dangerous preponderance of these Turks. Motamed transferred the seat of the caliphate from Samara back to Bagdad, in the year 873 (Heg. 259), where it afterwards continued. In the same year, owing to a revolution in the independent government of Chorasan, the dynasty of the Thaherides gave place to that of the Soffarides, who, eventually, extended their dominion over Tabristan and Segestan. The governor of Egypt and Syria, Achmet Ben Tulun, also made himself independent (A. D. 877, Heg. 263), from whom are descended the Tulunides. The brave Muaffek annihilated, indeed, the empire of the Zinghians, in Cufa and Bassora, 10 years after its formation (A. D. 881, Heg. 268); but he was unable to save the caliphate from the ruin to which it was continually hastening. Motamed died soon after him (A. D. 892, Heg. 279), and was succeeded by Muaffek's son, Mothadad Billah. He contended unsuccessfully with a new sect that had arisen in Irak-the Carinathians (A. D. 899, Heg. 286) against whom his son, Moktaphi Billah (A.D. 902, Heg. 289), was more fortunate. He was still more successful in a war against the Tulunides, as he again reduced Egypt and Syria, in 905 (Heg. 292). Under his brother, Moktadar Billah, who succeeded him at the age of 13 years (A. D. 909, Heg. 296), rebellions and bloody quarrels about the sovereignty disturbed the government of the empire. He was several times deposed and reinstated, and finally murdered (A. D. 931, Heg. 319). During his reign, Abu Mohammed Obeidallah rose in Africa, who, pretending to be descended from Fatima, daughter of the prophet (therefore from Ali), overthrew the dynasty of the Agladides in Tunis, and founded that of the Fatimites (A. D. 910, Heg. 298). Not satisfied with reigning independent of the caliph, this party, as descendants of the prophet, asserted themselves to be the only lawful caliphs. Shortly afterwards, the dynasty of the Bouides, in Persia, rose to authority and power (A. D. 925, Heg. 315). Chorasan was still independent. The only change was, that the Samanides had taken the place of the Soffarides. In a part of Ara

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bia the heretic Carmathians ruled; in Mesopotamia, the Hamadamites. In Egypt, which had just been recovered, Akschid, from a governor, was called to be a sovereign. From him descended the Akschidites. Kaher Billah, Mothadad's third son, merited his fate, on account of his malice and cruelty. The Turkish soldiers, having recovered their power, drove him from the throne into exile (A. D. 934, Heg. 322), in which he perished five years afterwards. Rhadi Billah, his brother, bore the dignity of an emir al omra (captain of the captains), with which the exercise of absolute power, in the name of the caliph, was united; and thus the caliph was more and more thrown into the back-ground. The first who was invested with this dignity was Raik; but it was soon torn from him by the Turk Jakan, by force of arms, in the year 939 (Heg. 327). Jakan extended the power of the office to such a degree as to leave the caliph nothing but the name of his temporal sway, and even assumed the right of determining the succession to the throne. Raik was indemnified by receiving Cufa, Bassora and Irak Arabi, as an independent government. The next caliph, Motaki Billah, Moktader's son, made an effort to regain his independence by the murder of Jakun; but he was soon compelled, by the Turkish soldiers, to appoint Tozun, another of their countrymen, emir, who made this office hereditary. He formally devised it to a certain Schirzad, but it soon came into the possession of the Persian royal house of the Bouides, whose aid the succeeding caliph, Mostaki Billah, solicited against the tyranny of Schirzad. The first Bouide emir, Moezeddulat, left it as an inheritance to his posterity. Not the caliph, but the emir, now reigned in Bagdad, though over only a small territory. In every remote province, there were independent princes. To continue the catalogue of the names of those who were henceforward caliphs, would be superfluous, for these Mussulman popes had not by any means the power of the Christian. It would be too tedious to pursue the branches into which the history of the caliphate is now divided; but we must briefly show the great changes which the different states and their dynasties have undergone, and which gave rise to the dominion of the Ottoman Porte. During the minority of the Akschidite Ali, the Fatimite Morz Ledinillah, at that time caliph in Tunis, subjugated Egypt in 969 (Heg. 358), and founded Cairo, which he made the seat of his caliphate.

There were, consequently, at this time, three caliphs at Bagdad, Cairo and Cordova-each of which declared the others heretics. But the Fatimites, as well as the Abbassides, fell under the power of their viziers, and, like them, the Ommiades in Cordova were deprived of all power by the division of Spain into many small sovereignties, till they were entirely subverted by the Morabethun. (See Spain.) Ilkan, king of Turkestan, having conquered Chorasan, and overthrown the Samanides, was expelled again by Mahmud, prince of Gazna, who founded there the dominion of the Gaznevides, in 998 (Heg.388), who were soon, however, overthrown in turn by the Seldjook Turks, under Togrul Beg, in 1030 (Heg. 421). This leader conquered also Charasm, Georgia, and the Persian Irak. Called to the assistance of the caliph Kajem Bemeillah, at Bagdad, against the tyranny of the Bouide emirs, he proceeded to Bagdad, and became emir himself in 1055 (Heg. 448), by which means the dominion of the Turks was firmly established over all the Mussulmans. To his nephew, Alp Arslan (who defeated and took prisoner the Greek emperor Romanus Diogenes), he left this dignity, with so great power, that these Turkish emirs al omra were frequently called the sultans of Bagdad. Turkish princes, who aspired to be sovereigns in the other provinces, were, at first, satisfied with the title of atabek (father, teacher), such as the atabeks of Irak and Syria, of Adherbidschan, Farsistan (Persis) and Laristan. It was the atabeks of Syria and Irak, with whom the crusaders had principally to contend. The first was called Omadeddin Zenghi; by the Franks, Sanguin. They were afterwards termed sultans. The caliph of Bagdad was recognised by all as the spiritual sovereign of all Mussulmans: his temporal authority did not extend beyond the walls of Bagdad. Noureddin, Zenghi's son, being requested, by the Fatimite caliph Adhed, to protect Bagdad against his vizier, sent to Cairo, in succession, the Curds, Schirkueh and Salaheddin or Saladin; but the latter overthrew the Fatimites (as schismatic anti-popes), and usurped the authority of sultan of Egypt in 1170 (Heg. 556), with which he united Syria, after Noureddin's death. This is the great Salaheddin (Saladin), the formidable enemy of the Christians, the conqueror of Jerusalem. The dynasty which commenced with him was called, from his father, Ayoub, the Ayoubites. They reigned over Egypt till expelled by the

Mamelukes in 1250. The Seldjook sultans of Irak were overthrown, in 1194 (Heg. 590), by the Charasmians; and, as those of Chorasan were extinct, there remained of the Seldjook dominions nothing but the empire of Iconium or Roum, in Asia Minor, from which the present Turkish empire derives its origin. (See Ottoman Empire.) The Charasmian sultans extended their conquests far into Asia, until their territories were invaded by the Tartars, under Zenghis Khan, in 1220 (Heg.617). They were finally totally destroyed by his son Öctai. Bagdad, also, the remains of the possessions of the caliphs, became the easy prey of a Mongul horde, under Holagou, in 1258 (Heg. 636), by the treachery of the vizier al Kami, and a slave, Amram, under the 56th caliph, Motazem. The nephew of the cruelly-murdered Motazem fled to Egypt, where he continued to be called caliph, under the protection of the Mamelukes, and bequeathed the Mohammedan popedom to his posterity. When the Turks conquered Egypt, in 1517, the last of these nominal caliphs was carried to Constantinople, and died, after returning to Egypt, in 1538. The Turkish sultans subsequently assumed the title of caliph, and the padishah or grand signor at Constantinople retains it to the present day, with the claim of spiritual supremacy over all Mussultans, though this claim is little regarded out of his own dominions, and strongly disputed by the Persians.

CALIXTINS, or UTRAQUISTS; a sect of the Hussites in Bohemia, who differed from the Catholics principally in giving the cup in the Lord's supper to laymen. (See Hussites.) Under George of Podiebrad, from 1450 to 1471, who declared himself for them, the C. obtained the ascendency. Under Wladislaw, they maintained their religious liberties, and, from the time of the reformation in the 16th century, shared the doctrines as well as the fate of the Protestants in Bohemia. Their refusal to fight against their own sect in the Smalkaldian war, at first drew upon them severe persecutions; but Ferdinand I, though unfavorable to them in other respects, permitted them to participate in the advantages of the religious peace of 1556 with his other Protestant subjects, and the excellent Maximilian II granted them perfect liberty in the exercise of their religious belief. Their situation became more critical under Rodolph II, and they found it difficult to prevail on him publicly to acknowledge the Bo

hemian confession, presented by them in connexion with the Bohemian Brethren and the Lutherans, and to confirm the church government, under which they had hitherto possessed teachers, churches and schools of their own, and a separate consistory at Prague. When Matthias made many encroachments on the privileges thus granted, the united Protestants, under the count of Thurn, in 1617, undertook to defend themselves. This finally kindled the 30 years' war. After a short triumph under Frederic of the Palatinate, whom they had chosen king, they were defeated, in 1620, near Prague, and the Protestant cause completely overthrown. Ferdinand II caused many C., Lutherans and Calvinists to be executed as rebels, and drove others into banishment; and Ferdinand III did not extend the benefits of the peace of Westphalia to the Protestants in Bohemia. His successors were not more favorably disposed towards the Protestants; and the edict of toleration of Joseph II, 1782, first restored to the Protestants in Bohemia their religious liberty, of which they had been deprived during 162 years, and which is enjoyed to the present day by the Calvinists and Lutherans, among whom the remains of the old C. have been lost.

CALIXTUS; the name of several popes. -1. The first was a Roman bishop from 217 to 224, when he suffered martyrdom. -2. Guido, son of count William of Burgundy, archbishop of Vienna, and papal legate in France, was elected, in 1119, in the monastery of Clugny, successor of the expelled pope Gelasius II, who had been driven from Italy by the emperor Henry V, and had died in this monastery. He received the tiara at Vienna. In the same year, he held councils at Toulouse and at Rheims, the latter of which was intended to settle the protracted dispute respecting the right of investiture. As the emperor Henry V would not confirin an agreement which he had already made on this subject, Crepeated anew the excommunication which he had pronounced against him as legate, at the council of Vienna, in 1112. He excommunicated, also, the anti-pope Gregory VIII, and renewed former decrees respecting simony, lay investiture and the marriage of priests. Successful in his contest with the emperor on the subject of investiture by means of his alliance with the rebels in Germany, in particular with the Saxons, he made his entrance into Italy in 1120, and, with great pomp, into Rome itself; took Greg

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ory VIII prisoner, in 1121, by the aid of the Normans, and treated him shamefully. He availed himself of the troubles of the emperor to force him, in 1122, to agree to the concordat of Worms. (See Investiture and Concordat). He died in 1124.C. III, chosen in 1168, in Rome, as antipope to Paschal III, and confirmed by the emperor Frederic I, in 1178, was obliged to submit to pope Alexander III. As he was not counted among the legal popes, a subsequent pope was called C. ÏI. This was a Spanish nobleman, Alphonso Borgia, counsellor of Alphonso, king of Arragon and the Sicilies. He was made pope in 1455. He was at this time far advanced in life, but equalled in policy and presumption the most enterprising rulers of the church. In order to appease the displeasure of the princes and nations, occasioned by the proceedings of the councils of Constance and Basil, he instigated them to a crusade against the Turks, and supported Scanderbeg, for this purpose, with money and ships. His intention was counteracted in Germany by the discontent of the states of the empire with the concordat of Vienna, and in France by the appeals of the universities of Paris and Toulouse against the tithe for the Turkish war. King Alphonso, moreover, was indignant at the refusal of the pope to acknowledge his natural son Ferdinand as king of Naples. The Romans, also, were displeased at the favors which he conferred on his worthless nephews. After his death, in 1458, a treasure of 115,000 ducats was found, destined for the Turkish war.

CALIXTUS (properly Callisen), George, the most able and enlightened theologian of the Lutheran church in the 17th century, was born in 1586, at Meelby, in Holstein, and educated at Flensborg and Helmstadt. In 1607, in the latter university, he turned his thoughts to theology; in 1609, visited the universities of the south of Germany, in 1612, those of Holland, England and France, where his intercourse with the different religious parties, and the greatest scholars of his time, developed that independence and liberality of opinion, for which he was distinguished. After a brilliant victory, in 1614, in a religious dispute with the Jesuit Turrianus, he was made professor of theology, and died in 1656. His treatises on the authority of the Holy Scriptures, transubstantiation, celibacy, supremacy of the pope, and the Lord's supper, belong, even according to the judgment of learned Catholics, to the most profound and acute