were fought in January and February, and the armies remained, for several months, without roof or tent, in the open air of a cold winter.

CAMPAN, Jeanne Louise Henriette (originally Genet), born at Paris, Oct. 6, 1752, became reader to the daughters of Lou's XV; gained the favor of the wife of the dauphin, afterwards the queen Marie Antoinette, who gave her in marriage to the son of her private secretary, M. Campan, and appointed her the first lady of the bed-chamber. Madame C. gave her patroness many proofs of fidelity and attachment, and wished to follow her into the Temple after the 10th of Aug., 1792, which, however, Pethion did not allow. After the fall of Robespierre, madame C. established a boarding-school for the education of young ladies at St. Germain, which soon acquired a wide reputation. On this account, Napoleon appointed her the principal of an institution founded by him for the daughters of the officers of the legion of honor, at Ecouen, which she organized and superintended for seven years. After the restoration, Louis XVIII abolished this institution, and madame C. lost her situation. Her only son died in 1821, in consequence of ill treatment suffered because he was a relation of marshal Ney. Madame C. died at Paris, March 10, 1822. Of her Memoirs respecting the Private Life of the Queen Marie Antoinette, with Recollections of the Times of Louis XIV, XV, and XVI, in 4 vols. (translated into English, 1823), the fifth edition appeared at Paris, 1823. They contain interesting contributions to the history of the French revolution. Her Journal Anecdotique, also (Paris, 1824), is rich in piquant anecdotes of Napoleon, Alexander I, and others.

CAMPANELLA, Thomas; a native of Calabria, in Italy, famous for his talents and misfortunes. He displayed great quickness of parts when quite young, and, at the age of 15, entered into the order of the Dominicans. He studied theology and other branches of knowledge with assiduity, but was principally attracted by philosophy. The opinions of Aristotle, then generally taught in the schools, appeared to him unsatisfactory; and, in 1591, he published, at Naples, a work, entitled Philosophia Sensibus demonstrata, intended to show the futility of the prevailing doctrines. This book procured him some admirers, and more enemies. He then went to Rome, and afterwards to Florence, where he was well received by the grand-duke Ferdinand; but, not

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obtaining some preferment which he expected, he proceeded to Bologna, and then to Padua, where he gave lectures on philosophy. In 1598, he returned to Naples, and revisited, shortly after, Calabria, where, in the following year, he was arrested on a charge of conspiracy against the Spanish government, to which Naples was then subject. A scheme was imputed to him of having engaged the Turks to assist him in making himself master of Calabria. On this improbable and apparently unfounded accusation, he was imprisoned, and, after being repeatedly tortured, condemned to perpetual confinement. In this situation, he wrote many learned works, afterwards published. At length, in 1626, pope Urban VIII procured his removal to Rome, and, in 1629, gave him his liberty, and bestowed on him a pension. Dreading some further persecution from the Spaniards, he withdrew, in 1634, to France, where he was honorably received, and much esteemed by the learned men of that country. He died at Paris in 1639.-C. was a man of more imagination than judgment, displaying his talents rather by undermining the systems of others than by establishing his own. He was a believer in astrology, one of the follies of the age; and some of his opinions were very eccentric. His works are extremely numerous.

CAMPANIA; the ancient name of a province of Italy, in the present kingdom of Naples, which, partly on account of its natural curiosities, including Vesuvius, the Phlegræan fields, the lake of Avernus, and partly for its remarkable fertility, was a favorite resort of the distinguished Romans, who built there magnificent country-houses. Cuma, Puteoli, Naples, Herculaneum, Pompeii, Capreæ, Salernum and Capua, the principal cities of C., are names rich in classical associations. The Appian and Latin ways led into the interior of this charming province. Even now, C., or Terra di Lavoro, is the most beautiful and fruitful part of Italy; and no traveller can wish for a more delightful country than the fields of C., filled, in the month of April, with barley four feet high, and adorned with lofty poplars, which are connected by luxuriant vines, forming a canopy over the fields. "There," says Gothe, "it is worth while to till the ground."

CAMPANILE; a detached tower, in some parts of Italy, erected for the purpose of containing bells. Several of them have deviated considerably from the perpen

dicular, in consequence of their great height and narrowness of base. The campanile of Pisa, called Torre Pendente, or Hanging Tower, is the most remarkable of these. Its height is 150 feet, and it inclines nearly 13 feet from the perpendicular. The tower consists of eight stories, each of which is surrounded by columns. (See Bologna.)

CAMPBELL, George, a distinguished Scotch divine, was born at Aberdeen, in 1709. He was educated at Mareschal college, and afterwards articled to a writer of the signet at Edinburgh. In 1741, he relinquished the law, and studied divinity. In 1759, he was appointed principal of Mareschal college. In 1763, he published his celebrated Dissertation on Miracles, in answer to the Essay on Miracles of Mr. Hume. This Dissertation was translated into the French and Dutch languages. In 1771, C. was chosen professor of divinity, and, in 1776, gave to the world his Philosophy of Rhetoric, which established his reputation as an accurate grammarian, a sound critic and a tasteful scholar. He also published occasional sermons. The last work which he lived to publish, was his Translation of the Gospels, with Preliminary Dissertations and Notes (2 vols. 4to.) He died in 1796. Besides the works already mentioned, his Lectures on Systematic Theology and the Pastoral Character (folio) have been printed since his death; as also his Lectures on the Ecclesiastical Character (2 vols. 8vo.), with his life prefixed.

CAMPBELL, John, a native of Edinburgh, was, when very young, brought to England. His earliest productions are not certainly known; but, in 1736, he published the Military History of Prince Eugene and the Duke of Marlborough (2 vols. folio), which gained him so much reputation, that he was engaged, soon after, to assist in writing the ancient part of the Universal History, in 60 vols. 8vo. In 1742, he published the first two volumes of the Lives of the Admirals and other British Seamen, the two last volumes of which appeared in 1744. In 1745 commenced the publication of the Biographia Britannica, one of the most important undertakings in which C. was engaged. The articles written by him, extending through four volumes of the work, are, both in point of style and matter, much superior to those of his coadjutors. They are liable, however, to one general censure, arising from the almost unvarying strain of panegyric, in which the writer indulges, and which has re

peatedly subjected him to critical animadversion. In 1750, he published the Present State of Europe, containing much historical and political information. He was then employed on the modern part of the Universal History. His last and favorite work was a Political Survey of Great Britain (1774, 2 vols. 4to.) C. died Dec. 28, 1775.

CAMPBELL, Thomas, was born at Glasgow, Scotland, Sept. 7, 1777, and early displayed a remarkable vivacity of imagination and vigor of mind. He entered the university of Glasgow at the early age of 12, and immediately distinguished himself by carrying off the academical prizes, particularly for translations from the Greek poets. Moral philosophy was one of his favorite pursuits; but he never applied himself to any professional studies. After passing 7 years at the university, he went to Edinburgh, and produced, at the age of 20, his principal poem, the Pleasures of Hope, which established his reputation in England. Harmony of versification, a polished and graceful diction, and an accurate finish, are united with an ardent poetical sensibility, in this youthful production. The passage concerning the partition and subjugation of Poland is full of the lyric fire, which afterwards burst forth so brilliantly in the Mariners of England, the Battle of the Baltic, and Hohenlinden. In 1800, he visited the continent, and passed a year in Germany, where he became acquainted with the principal poets and literati. Here he witnessed the bloody fight of Hohenlinden, which inspired one of his finest lyric effusions. On leaving the continent, he visited London for the first time, and resided there till his marriage, in 1803, when he removed to Sydenham, where he resided about 20 years, receiving a pension of £200 from the crown. He has lately lived in London. In 1808 appeared his Annals of Great Britain, from the Accession of George III to the Peace of Amiens (3 vols., 8vo.) In 1809, he published a volume of poems containing Gertrude of Wyoming, a Pennsylvanian tale. It is full of pathos and beautiful simplicity. In O'Connor's Child he has touched a wilder string of passion and despair. His Theodric (1824) disappointed every body; and C. has, of late, done nothing worthy of his earlier productions. He is remarkable for his severe criticism of his own works, and this may account for his having written so little for the last 25 years. His poems have all been republished in America, where they

are very popular. His Specimens of British Poets, with biographical and critical Notices, and an Essay on English Poetry (1819, 7 vols., 8vo.), contain short extracts from the poets, from the time of Chaucer to that of Anstey. His Lectures on Poetry were written, originally, for the London Institution, and afterwards delivered in different cities of the kingdom, to his own profit and honor. They were printed, or at least a part of them, in the New Monthly Magazine. This magazine was originally projected by C. It appeared in 1821, and was edited by C. about four years, with much reputation. He was one of the early promoters of the London university, and, by his letter to Mr. Brougham, which first appeared in the Times, Feb. 9, 1825, and by his Suggestions, which appeared in the New Monthly soon afterwards, materially furthered that great project. In 1827, he was elected rector of the university of Glasgow-an office without labor or emolument. His rival was sir Walter Scott, and the election was made entirely on political grounds, C. representing the whig interest, to which he has always been attached.-C. is a very amiable and interesting person in private life, of lively manners, and devoted entirely to literary pursuits. Besides his pension and the profits of his literary labors, he has a small inheritance, received from an uncle.

CAMPE, Joachim Heinrich, born in 1746, at Deensen, in the territory of Brunswick, studied theology at Helmstadt, in Halle. In 1773, he was a chaplain in the Prussian service. He founded a private institution for education near Hamburg, but left it, on account of his health, in 1783, to professor Trapp. He died, Oct. 22, 1818, at the age of 72 years. His philosophical treatises, as well as the works which he composed for the instruction of youth, display a noble and philanthropic spirit. The services which he has rendered to the cause of education have been universally acknowledged. His style is pure and flowing, artless and animated. He possessed a rare faculty of accommodating himself to the youthful capacity. His endeavors to purify and enrich the German language were carried to excess. His writings for the instruction of childhood and youth were published together, at Brunswick, 1806-9, in 30 vols. 12mo., with copperplates. His Robinson the Younger has been translated into almost all the European languages, even into modern Greek. His Theophron has also had a wide circulation. His Wörter

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buch der Deutschen Sprache (Brunswick, 1807-11, 5 vols. 4to.) is a production of much merit. His letters written (1789) from Paris, containing warm eulogiums on the French revolution, are bold and eloquent, but marked with the enthusiastic exaggeration of the time, and drew upon him many serious and satirical attacks.

CAMPEACHY, or CAMPECHE; a seaport town of Mexico, in Yucatan, in a bay to which it gives name, on the west coast of the peninsula of Yucatan; 90 miles W. S. W. Merida; lon. 90° 31′ W.; lat. 19° 51' N.; population, 6000. It is defended by a castle furnished with cannon, and has several times been taken from the Spaniards, and plundered. Its port is large, but shallow. The houses are well built of stone. The exportation of the wax of Yucatan constitutes one of the most lucrative branches of its trade. It has a manufacture of cotton cloth. It was, for a long time, the chief mart for logwood, of which great quantities grew in the neighborhood, before the English landed here, and cut it at the isthmus. At the time when it was taken by the Spaniards, it was said to have contained 3000 houses, and considerable monuments of Indian art.-The bay of Campeachy lies on the south-west of the peninsula of Yucatan, and on the north of the province of Tabasco.

CAMPER, Peter, born at Leyden, 1722, died at the Hague, April 7, 1789, was one of the most learned and acute physicians and anatomists of the 18th century. He distinguished himself in anatomy, surgery, obstetrics and medical jurisprudence, and also as a writer on the beautiful. He drew with great skill with the pen, painted in oil, modelled in wax, and knew how to handle the chisel of the sculptor. C. was the first who proved that the ape, of which the ancients have left anatomical descriptions, was a species of orang outang. His essays on lithotomy, &c., have spread light on these subjects. He was much devoted to comparative osteology, and believed, what the discoveries of Cuvier have confirmed, that there have really existed animals of which the species are at present extinct. His Dissertation on the natural Varieties, &c., is the first work which has thrown much light on the varieties of the human species, which the author distinguishes by the shape of the skull. His Treatise on the natural Difference of Features in Persons of various Countries and Ages, and on Beauty as exhibited in ancient Paintings and Engravings, followed by a

method of delineating various sorts of heads with accuracy, is intended to prove that the rules laid down by the most cel ebrated limners and painters are very defective. His general doctrine is, that the difference in form and cast of countenance proceeds from the facial angle. (q. v.) In his essay on the organs of speech in apes, he proves that nature has rendered the pronunciation of articulate sounds impossible, even to those which approach nearest to man, by lateral pouches connected with the windpipe. C. wrote in four languages, and received ten prizes from different academies. He received his education at Leyden, and travelled, and obtained the acquaintance of many of the most distinguished men of Europe, after which he was made professor of philosophy, medicine and surgery in Franeker. He taught the same sciences, afterwards, in Amsterdam and Gröningen. CAMPETTI; an Italian, born at Gargnano, on lake Garda, who has attracted much attention, in our time, by pretending to be capable of ascertaining, by his feelings, the places where metals and water exist under the ground. Many experiments seemed to confirm his statements. The king of Bavaria sent for him in 1806, and he came to Munich, where the experiments were renewed. These experiments were chiefly made with pendulums of sulphurous pyrites, which are said to vibrate if brought near to metals. Information on this subject is contained in Aretin's Neuer Literarischer Anzeiger (1807), beginning with No. 22. Gilbert also published, in 1808, interesting elucidations of these experiments. (See Rhabdomancy.)

CAMPHOR is a white, resinous production, of peculiar and powerful smell, not unlike that of rosemary, and is extracted from two or three kinds of trees of the bay tribe, that grow in the islands of the East Indies and China. Of these, the principal is the laurus camphora of Lin

næus.

It is of considerable height, much branched, and has spear-shaped leaves, with nerves, of a pale-yellowish-green color on the upper side, and bluish-green beneath. The flowers are small, white, and stand on stalks which issue from the Junction of the leaves and branches. Camphor is found in every part of the trees; in the interstices of the perpendicular fibres, and in the veins of the wood, in the crevices and knots, in the pith, and in the roots, which afford by far the greatest abundance. The method of extracting it consists in distilling with water

in large iron pots, which serve as the body of the still, with earthen heads fitted to them, stuffed with straw, and provided with receivers. Most of the camphor becomes condensed in the solid form among the straw, and part comes over with the water. Its sublimation is performed in low, flat-bottomed glass vessels, placed in sand, and the camphor becomes concrete, in a pure state, against the upper part, whence it is afterwards separated with a knife, after breaking the glass.-Numerous other vegetables are found to yield camphor by distillation. Among them are thyme, rosemary, sage, elecampane, anemone and pusatilla. A smell of camphor is disengaged when the volatile oil of fennel is treated with acids; and a small quantity of camphor may be obtained from oil of turpentine by simple distillation, at a very gentle heat.-Camphor has a bitterish, aromatic taste, is unctuous to the touch, and possesses a degree of toughness which prevents it from being pulverized with facility, unless a few drops of alcohol be added, when it is easily reduced to a powder. It floats on water, and is exceedingly volatile, being gradually dissipated in vapor if kept in open vessels. At 288° Fahr. it enters into fusion, and boils at 400° Fahr. It is insoluble in water, but is dissolved freely by alcohol, from which it is immediately precipitated, in milky clouds, on the addition of water. It is likewise soluble in the fixed and volatile oils, and in strong acetic acid. Sulphuric acid decomposes camphor, converting it into a substance like artificial tannin. With nitric acid, it yields a peculiar acid, called camphoric acid. This acid combines with alkalies, and forms peculiar salts, called camphorates. They have not hitherto been applied to any useful purpose. As an internal medicine, camphor has been frequently employed, in doses of from 5 to 20 grains, with much advantage, to procure sleep in mania, and to counteract gangrene. In large doses, it acts as a poison. Dissolved in acetic acid, with some essential oils, it forms the aromatic vinegar. It promotes the solution of copal; and, from the circumstance that its effluvia are very noxious to insects, it is much used to defend subjects of natural history from their ravages.-In a crude state, camphor is formed into irregular lumps, of a yellowish-gray color, somewhat resembling nitre or bay-salt. It is imported into Europe in canisters, and the refining of it was long kept a secret by the Venetians. The Dutch have since

performed this work; and large quantities of camphor are now refined by some of the English and American chemists.For carpenters' work the wood of the camphor-tree is much used. It is light and durable, and, in consequence of long retaining its aromatic smell, is not liable to be injured by insects.-Plants of the camphor and cinnamon trees were captured by admiral Rodney, in 1782, and afterwards carried to Jamaica, and propagated there. The camphor-tree which grows very abundantly in the western parts of Japan, is a different species from that found in the islands of Sumatra and Borneo, with which we are principally acquainted.-Camphor was formerly in great repute as a medicine, but at present its virtues are less highly rated. It is a cordial and stimulant of a decidedly heating character, and is, therefore, improper in all fevers, unless the system is very low and weak. In such cases, if combined with nitre and other cooling articles, it is sometimes an excellent diaphoretic. But, in fevers in general, it is an article rather to be avoided. It was once, however, and is now, in some parts of Europe, thought to be one of the best medicines in fever of almost all sorts; but it is an article that could well be dispensed with in common practice. As a domestic cordial and medicine, it is, perhaps, more used than any other, being still, in families, a panacea for all ailments of the smaller sort.

Campistron, Jean Galbert de; a dramatic poet, contemporary with Racine; born 1656, at Toulouse, died 1723, at the same place. His tragedies, at the time of their appearance, met with extraordinary applause. At present, however, they are much less esteemed; so that only two of his pieces-Andronicus, a tragedy which represents, under fictitious names, the history of don Carlos, and the comedy Le Jaloux Désabusé-are admitted into the selection of the Théâtre Français des Auteurs du Second Ordre. Laharpe says of C., "His plots have been commended as probable: they are so, but they are feeble in conception and execution."

CAMPO CHIARO, duke of; a Neapolitan diplomatist. In 1805, he served, in the royal guard, as captain of the Lipariots a kind of mounted chasseurs. He remained in Naples when the king, on the approach of the French, fled, with his family, to Sicily. His liberal sentiments placed him, the next year, in Joseph's council of state, and he was soon after appointed minister of the royal house. Murat, also,

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when Joseph was appointed king of Spain, placed great confidence in him, and intrusted to him the direction of the police. He was afterwards employed on the most important diplomatic missions, among which was that to the congress of Vienna. The imprudence of the king himself, however, frustrated all the negotiations of the duke, which were conducted with great ability. After the revolution of Naples, in 1820, he was appointed minister of foreign affairs. His exertions in this difficult post were not crowned with success; and, after the departure of the king for the congress of Laybach, he was summoned before the parliament, on account of the circular of count Zurlo, which he had countersigned. He was, however, acquitted. He now lives in retirement.

CAMPO-FORMIO; a castle near (or rather a suburb of) Udine, in Friuli, a province of the Austrian government of Venice, celebrated for the peace, concluded here October 17, 1797, between Austria and, France, and signed, on the part of Austria, by the ambassadors Cobentzl, Meerveldt, Degelmann, and the marquis of Gallo, and, on the part of France, by general Bonaparte. The negotiations were begun at Udine May 19, and were carried on alternately there and in the castle of Passeriano, where Bonaparte resided. Austria consented to cede Mantua, when Bonaparte threatened to renew the war. The treaty of peace was signed at both places, but it was dated at Campo-Formio, because this place lay between Udine and Passeriano, although the ambassadors had never been there. Austria gave up the Netherlands, Milan and Mantua. The Cisalpine republic was formed from Milan, Mantua, Modena, Bologna, Ferrara, Romagna, and the Venetian Terra Firma, on the right bank of the Adige. The republic of Venice was divided. Austria obtained Venice, Istria, Dalmatia, and the mouths of the Cattaro, and the Terra Firma, on the left bank of the Adige; France, the Venetian Ionian islands, and the Venetian possessions in Albania. To effect a peace with the German empire, a congress was to be held at Rastadt. By secret articles of agreement, the emperor consented to the partial or total surrender of the left bank of the Rhine to France, for which Austria was to receive Salzburg, and a part of Bavaria on the Inn. To the duke of Modena, and other princes who had lost a portion of their territory, indemnifications in Germany were secured. Bonaparte had, of his own authority, concluded this peace. The reader will