ings themselves are called Canonical Books. In this sense, the Protestant church has no canon; it rejects the authority of all the traditions of the church, Hence, in order to be consistent, it must leave every Protestant, on free investigation, to decide what books he will regard as canonical. But the Bible, the pillar of the Protestant faith, is made up of separate canonical books; and, by pursuing such a course, the basis of the Protestant faith might be undermined. It has been agreed, therefore, however inconsistently, to adopt the New Testament canon of the Catholic church. But, in fixing the canon of the Old Testament, the decisions of the Catholic church have been rejected; and, contrary to the African councils and the usage of the Roman church, established by the council of Trent, part of Esther, also Baruch, Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus or Jesus the Son of Sirach, the two books of Maccabees, the Song of the Three Youths in the Fiery Furnace, described in Daniel, together with the two last chapters of this prophet, are thrown out as uncanonical and apocryphal. It is worthy of mention, that a controversy on this subject broke off the negotiations for a union of the Catholic and Protestant churches, which commenced in the beginning of the 18th century, between Leibnitz, Molanus and Bossuet.

CANON AND CAPUT IN COUNCILS. A council is not only the church universal assembled, which declares the faith of the members, and fixes the doctrines to be defended, but it also possesses the supreme power in the administration of all ecclesiastical affairs, which have not immediate reference to doctrines (as liturgies and rules of discipline). In the language of the church, a distinction is made between these two kinds of ordinances. Such as respect doctrine are called canons; and every other precept or regulation, caput or decretum. The latter are subject to be changed as the spirit of the age requires, and hence lay no claim to infallibility: the former are the unalterable truths and doctrines of the infallible church of the Lord. The council of Trent makes a distinction between the two, and the capita on church discipline are superscribed De Reformatione. It would be a great mistake to view these capita as doctrinal truths, and then to reproach the church with establishing erroneous dogmas as truths essential to salvation.

CANON LAW [written by a Catholic]. The famous Gravina begins his Institutes of the canon law thus:-Since the word

479

law is imperative, and includes the idea of physical enforcement, the ancient church preferred to apply to its precepts the milder term of rule or canon (from the Greek Kávov, rule), which agrees with the language of the council of Trent, and the most able canonists, as Van Espen, &c. Canons, therefore, are the laws which the church has promulgated; and by canon law, in English, is understood the whole body of ecclesiastical laws, ordinances and regulations. The church has been, from the time of its establishment, a free society, possessing and exercising the right of forming laws for itself, either by positive enactment, or by the gradual growth of custom. The regulations of the apostles, the decrees of the general and particular councils, and of the bishops, constitute these laws. Even when, after the downfall of paganism, the Christian church became connected with the state, it retained this legislative power. If the Theodosian code acquired authority, it was only in consequence of reception. The more the organization of the church became settled, the more frequent became the regulations and orders of the supreme bishop (the decretals). There is no question about the authority which was allowed to these decretals, and it is useless to inquire here whether this authority originated from positive enactment or from customary observance. The ecclesiastical as well as the political law is to be traced, in part, to each of these sources. In the course of time, collections were made of these canons, arranged in chronological order (Collectio Canonum). These collections came into use in the fifth and sixth centuries. The chief basis of them was a translation of the decrees of the four first general councils, to which other decrees of particular synods and decretals of the popes were added. In the time of Charlemagne, the collection of Dionysius the Little acquired almost the authority of laws. Equal authority, also, was allowed to the collection of canons ascribed to Isidore, bishop of Seville, which appeared in the ninth century. This famous collection is falsely attributed to Isidore, and abounds in spurious interpolations. It was entitled the Isidorian Code, and is said to have been brought from Spain. The object of the interpolations of the Pseudo-Isidore was probably to give a historical basis to a system grown up out of observance, which transferred many of the former rights of the metropolitans to the pope. After the 10th century, the custom which had before

prevailed, of collecting chronologically the ordinances of the church, and studying them from the sources, was given up, and systematical compendiums of ecclesiastical law began to be drawn from these canons. In these compendiums, it is true, literal extracts of the canons were retained, but often mutilated, and separated from their proper connexion. The most important of these compendiums is that of the Benedictine Gratian (of Chiusi), which he finished in 1151, in the convent of St. Felix, at Bologna. Gratian treated the subjects of the canon law according to a system which he had formed himself, and under each division laid down principles, which he established by quotations from the original decrees. By means of these authorities, with additions of his own, he extended his principles further, and endeavored to reconcile apparent contradictions in the law, or, where they could not be reconciled, to determine which part was binding. Hence the title of his work -Concordantia Discordantium Canonum. He divides the whole subject into three parts: in the first, he begins with a general essay on law, particularly ecclesiastical law, and treats of the officers of the church, their character, rights, duties, consecration, and share in the government of the church: the second part contains the system of the powers of the church, particularly of its jurisdiction and judicial processes: the third part embraces the rules respecting religious rites, the liturgy, the sacraments, &c. This new collection met with great success. Within 10 years after its appearance, the universities of Bologna and Paris had their professors of canon law, who taught from Gratian's work; and, within a short time, it superseded all former chronological collections. As the civil law acquired authority in so many countries from the circumstance that it was taught in the universities, so the Decretum Gratiani, in the same way, became a code, and with more reason, since it expounded a law really existing; and what Gratian had added was, to a certain degree, considered as commentary. Any direct cooperation of the popes in elevating the Decretum Gratiani to the authority of a code has never been proved. This Decretum, however, is only the first part of the present Corpus Juris Canonici. After the appearance of the Decretum, new decrees of councils and new decretals were promulgated, which several authors collected into appendices. All these new collections pope Gregory IX ordered to be put in order, which was done by the

Dominican Raymond, of Pennaforte. The work was divided into five books. This authentic collection was finished in 1234, and sent to the universities of Bologna and Paris. It bears the name of Decretales Gregorii Noni, and has the authority of law. The later decretals and decrees of councils were collected by Boniface VIII, and published as the sixth book (Liber Sextus) of the Gregorian Decretals, in 1298. They have also the authority of laws. Pope Clement V published, in 1313, a collection of his decrees, mostly issued at the council held at Vienne, in France: they are also a part of the Corpus Juris Canonici. About the year 1340, the decretals of John XXII were published; they are called Extravagantes Johannis XXII; and, at a later period, the subsequent decretals, to the time of Sixtus IV, who died in 1484, called Extravagantes Communes, appeared. These Extravagantes have not altogether the authority of law. Under pope Pius IV, a commission of 35 persons (the correctores Romani) was appointed to revise the Decretum Gratiani. The labor was continued under Pius V, and completed under Gregory XIII, and sanctioned by a bull of July 1, 1580. The later bulls have the force of law, if they concern a subject on which the pope has an unquestionable right to legislate, or as far as the secular governments accept them. The canon law, excepting some of its regulations, is in force in Germany, even in civil cases. Luther, it is well known, burned a copy of the canon law at Wittemberg, but the Protestant courts have continued to apply it, except where it disagrees with Protestant principles. The canons, even those of the general councils, which respect the discipline of the church, have no authority in the Gallican church, unless it is proved that they have been admitted as laws of the kingdom. The celebrated declaration of the clergy of France, of 1682, is a series of very important canons. They are to be considered as rules of the Gallican church and laws of the kingdom. Many Catholics are willing to admit that there exist arbitrary canons in the ecclesiastical codes, as much as unconstitutional laws in civil governments. In England, when the Catholic faith prevailed in that country, there existed, besides the general canon law, the legatine and provincial constitutions; the former being laws enacted in national synods, held under the cardinals Otho and Othobon, legates from pope Gregory IX and Clement IV, about the years 1220 and 1268; the

latter being decrees of various provincial synods, under several archbishops of Canterbury. The authority of the canon law in England, since the reformation, depends upon the statute 25th Henry VIII, according to which the ecclesiastical laws were to be revised by the king and a commission of nobles and clergymen, and such as were not repugnant to the laws of the realm and the king's prerogative were to remain in force till so revised. This revision was never made. There are four species of courts in England, in which the canon law, as well as the civil, is, under different restrictions, permitted to be used: 1. the courts of the archbishops and bishops, and their derivative officers, usually called, in the English law, courts Christian (curiæ Christianitatis), or ecclesiastical courts; 2. the military courts; 3. the courts of admiralty; 4. the courts of the two universities. The reception of these laws in general, and the different degrees of their reception in these courts, are grounded entirely upon custom, corroborated, in the case of the universities, by acts of parliament. The courts of common law have a superintendence over these courts. An appeal lies from all of them to the king.

CANONICAL BOOKS. (See Canon, and Apocryphal.)

CANONICAL HOURS are certain stated times of the day, devoted, more especially by the Roman church, to the offices of prayer and devotion, as matins, lauds, sixth, ninth, vespers. In England, the canonical hours are from 8 to 12 in the forenoon, before or after which marriage cannot be legally performed in any parish church.

CANONIZATION; a ceremony in the Roman church, by which deceased persons are declared saints. Alexander III, in 1170, pronounced it an exclusive privilege of the papal chair. This ceremony is one of the most solemn in the Roman church. The pope institutes a formal investigation of the qualifications of the deceased person recommended for canonization, in which his manner of life and the genuineness of the miracles ascribed to him are strictly examined; and an advocate of the devil, as he is called, is appointed, to assail the memory of the candidate, but, of course, always loses his cause. If the examination is satisfactory, the pope pronounces the beatification (q. v.) of the candidate; but, in order to collect new proofs of his merits (e. g., of miracles performed by his relics), the actual canonization generally takes place many years afterwards; and then a day, usually the 41

VOL. II.

481

anniversary of the death of the new saint, is dedicated to his honor, his name is inserted in the Canon or the Litany of the Saints in the Mass (thence canonization), churches and altars are consecrated to him, and his remains are preserved as holy relics. The last instance of canonization occurred in 1803. (See Saints.)

CANOPUS, OF CANOBUS, in Egyptian antiquities, is the name given to large-bellied vessels, used formerly for preserving the water of the Nile fresh and fit for drinking. They were frequently made of basalt (as the fine canopus of green basalt in the villa Albani), and decorated with figures in relievo or paintings; or of costly white alabaster, like that in the Mus. Pio. Clementinum, with spiral flutings; or they were formed from black, burned clay Under the shape of such a vessel, surmounted by a human head, connected also sometimes with serpents, and similar attributes, the Egyptians worshipped one of their beneficent deities. The city Canebus or Canopus, between Alexandria and the western mouth of the Nile, is said to have derived its name from this deity. The worship of Serapis was introduced, in the room of that of this rude idol, under the first Ptolemy. (See Part 1st of Creuzer's Symbolik, where representations of this idol are given. For information respecting the worship of the same, see Creuzer's Dionysos.) According to Eusebius, the spherical shape of the vessel was to express the universal nature, or the world. The human head upon it significd the all-enlivening spirit (vous), which was denoted also, in former times, by the figures of a ball and a serpent. According to Zoega (Numi Egyptii Imperatorii, page 34), Canopus was the same as Knuph, which seems to come from the same root, and denotes the kind, protecting god. There are traces, in Italy, of the worship of this deity, in that country, in the time of Adrian.

CANOSA; a city in Lower Italy (Terra di Bari), famous for the tombs in its vicinity, near the field where Hannibal defeated the Romans. They are cut in rocks, on a hill. Vases of coarse, whitish clay have been found in them. In 1813, a beautiful burial-chamber was opened. It had a small ante-chamber, supported by pillars, and contained the corpse of a warrior in armor, with a helmet on his head, but one leg bare. The body crumbled to dust as soon as it was exposed to the exterior air. The wall of the apartment contained a fine basso-relievo. A copper lamp and a number of beautiful vases

were also found here. (See Millin's Description des Tombeaux de Canosa ainsi que des Bas-reliefs, des Armures, et des Vases peints qui y ont été découverts en 1813 (Paris, 1813, folio), with correct representations). The paintings upon the vases are the most important part of this discovery. They refer to the Greek-Italian mysteries of the eldest inhabitants.

CANOSA (near Reggio, in the duchy of Modena); a mountain castle, now in ruins. Adelheid, widow of king Lotharius, was besieged here, in 951, by Berenger II., when she offered her hand and the crown of Italy to Otho the Great, emperor of Germany. In the 11th century, Canosa belonged to Matilda, duchess of Tuscany, with whom Gregory VII resided, in 1077, when he imposed a severe penance upon the excommunicated emperor Henry IV. CANOVA, Antonio; the third sculptor of modern times, who has formed an epoch in Italian statuary. Michael Angelo Buonarotti was the first, Bernini the second. C. may be considered as the restorer of the graceful and lovely style, and the founder of a new school, as far as it respects softness and delicacy of execution, and excellent handling of the marble. He was born, Nov. 1, 1757, at Possagno, in the Venetian territory. While a boy of 12 years old, he displayed his talents by modelling the figure of a lion in butter, which was placed on the table of Falieri, the seigneur of the place. The Falieri, father and son, sent him, therefore, as an apprentice, to a statuary in Bassano, where he acquired skill in the mechanical part of the art. His first work, executed in his 17th year, was an Eurydice, in soft marble, of half the natural size. He was now sent to the academy of Venice, where his proper study of the art commenced. He gained several prizes, and excited expectations which he more than equalled in the sequel. The first work, which he was commissioned to execute, was the statue of the marchese Poleni, of the natural size, for the city of Padua. In his 25th year, he finished the group of Dædalus and Icarus, of the natural size, in Carrara marble. It is remarkable as a juvenile work, but is only a faithful imitation of common nature. The senate of Venice sent him, in 1779, to Rome, with a salary of 300 ducats. Here the first fruit of his study was an Apollo crowning himself with laurel, three palms high, in marble. It is weak, and without character. Yet the artist, in this production, has advanced beyond the mere imitation of nature; and this statue

is to be considered as his transition to the ideal. A group as large as life-Theseus sitting upon the slain Minotaur-was the first large work by which C. made himself known in Rome (1783). It is one of his best works. Theseus has the character of a hero; and the forms show the study and style of the antiques. It was received with universal applause, and count Fries, in Vienna, purchased it. In 1783, C. undertook the execution of the tomb of pope Clement XIV, in the church Degli Apostoli. He retained the usual style of composition, and only improved on the depraved taste of the school of Bernini. He next made the group of Cupid and Psyche, where he first displayed his own peculiar style, of which loveliness is a striking characteristic. The figures are exceedingly delicate and graceful; yet there is no point of view from which the countenances of both can be seen at the same time; besides, the wings of Cupid project disagreeably from the group, which presents too many interstices. About the same time, he executed the likeness of the young prince Czartoriski, in the character of Cupid. He was employed on a second public monument, the tomb of pope Clement XIII, in St. Peter's. It was finished in 1792, and is distinguished by its colossal size and simple style. (See the engraving of Raphael Morghen.) The figure of Religion is objected to as stiff; the long rays, the huge cross, and the petty folds of the lower dress, give her a tasteless air. The Genius has more beauty of appearance than depth of expression. Meanwhile, the fame of the artist continually increased. He established, in the palace of the Venetian ambassador, a school for the benefit of young Venetians. His next works were a winged Cupid, standing; another group of Cupid and Psyche; a group of Venus and Adonis (in which the figure of the latter is particularly beautiful), for the marchese Verio, in Naples; the tomb of the Venetian admiral Emo. for the republic of Venice. This is a combination of basso-relievos, with figures in full relief. C. also made a very lovely Psyche, standing, half-dressed, with a butterfly in her left hand, which she holds by the wings with her right, and contemplates with a calm, smiling mien. He also modelled, at this time, many bassorelievos, mostly scenes from the life of Socrates, taken from ancient fable and history, which cannot all be called successful. Only one of these models, which represents the city of Padua as a sitting

female figure, he executed in marble. A repentant Magdalen, of the natural size, belongs to the works in marble, in which he has carried the expression of the melting and the soft to the highest degree. The relaxing effect of repentance is expressed with great truth. His Hebe is a delightful figure. In an easy and animated attitude, the smiling goddess of youth hovers upon a cloud, pouring nectar, with her right hand, into a bowl, which she holds in her left. Both vessels, as well as the coronet of Hebe, and the edges of her garment, are gilt. C. is fond of a variety of material, and often endeavors to give to his statues the effect of pictures. He repeated this and the preceding statue. He next displayed his talent for the tragical, in the raging Hercules hurling Lichas into the sea, The group is colossal, and Hercules somewhat larger than the Farnesian; but it makes a disagreeable impression, which proves that the genius of C. was not adapted to such subjects. His representation of the two pugilists, Kreugas and Demoxenos, is much more successful. A standing group of Cupid and Psyche, which has been often repeated, was the triumph of his art. Psyche here appears again holding the butterfly. A Palamedes, subsequently executed by C. in marble, was overthrown, in the winter of 1805, by an inundation, and broken in pieces. In 1796 and 1797, C. finished the model of the celebrated tomb of the late archduchess Christina of Austria, wife of duke Albert of Saxe-Teschen, which, in 1805, was placed in the church of the Augustines, at Vienna. The design of it is original; for the first time, the great artist ventured to leave the common track. In 1797, he made the colossal model of a statue of the king of Naples, one of his finest works. In the beginning of the revolution, the studio of C. was in great danger from the Jacobins; but the lovely Psyches, Hebes and Cupids softened the rage of the mob, and saved the work-shop of the artist, in the back part of which the royal colossus was concealed. This statue, 15 palms high, was executed in marble, in 1803. During the revolution of 1798 and 1799, C. accompanied the senator prince Rezzonico on a journey through Germany. After his return, he remained for some time in the Venetian territory, and painted, for the church of his native village, Possagno, an altarpiece, in which are represented the dead Christ, the Maries, Nicodemus and Joseph, and, on high, God the Father. He

483

afterwards executed, in Rome, his Perseus with the head of Medusa, which, when the Apollo of Belvedere was carried to France, occupied its place and pedestal. This statue increased the fame of C. more than any of the preceding works. But Perseus has no decided character. It is only an imitation of the Apollo. The separate parts are of exquisite beauty in form, as well as in masterly, delicate finishing. The magical charm of the fiuish dazzles the eye, and makes us often forget the more severe forms of art. Far less successful is the Mars pacifer, of equal size. In 1802, C. was made, by Pius VII, superintendent of the Roman works of art, and knight of the Golden Spur. In the same year, he was invited by Bonaparte to Paris, to make the model of his colossal statue. In the beginning of 1803, the model of the emperor's bust, and afterwards that of his colossal statue, was to be seen in the workshop of the artist. It is impossible to conceive a more characteristic likeness, exhibiting, at the same time, the ideal character of the ancient heroic style. We have not a more successful work of the kind than this bust: the figure of the statue is not so good. George IV has since presented the latter to the duke of Wellington. The statue of inadame Lætitia Bonaparte was purchased, in 1819, in Paris, by the duke of Devonshire, for 36,000 francs. Among the later works of the artist are a Washington, of colossal size, in a sitting attitude, now in the state-house at Raleigh the seat of government of North Carolina the tombs of the cardinal of York and of Pius VII; the busts of Pius VII and of Francis II; an imitation of the Medicean Venus; a Venus rising from the bath; a portrait statue, lying, half-dressed, upon a couch; the tomb of the late engraver Volpato; the colossal group of Theseus killing the Minotaur, far surpassing his earlier works in the heroic style; the tomb of Alfieri, for the countess of Stolberg, in Florence, and erected in.that place (the weeping Italia, a colossal statue in marble, is particularly admired); the Graces rising from the bath; the monument of the marchioness of S. Croce; a colossal basso-relievo, in marble; a Venus; a dancing girl, with almost transparent garments; the portrait statue of the wife of Lucien Bonaparte, with the lyre in her arms, a large marble statue, with beautiful drapery; a colossal Hector; a Paris; a Muse, larger than the natural size; a model of a colossal Ajax; and the model of a sitting statue, in rich robes, of