peated struggle for dominion between Rome and Carthage, in the interval between 264 and 146 B. C. The first Punic war (see Punic) continued 23 years. The fleets and armies of Carthage were vanquished. By the peace (B. C. 241), the Carthaginians lost all their possessions in Sicily. Upon this, the mercenary forces, whose wages could not be paid by the exhausted treasury of the city, took up arms. Hamilcar Barcas conquered them, and restored the Carthaginian power in Africa. Notwithstanding the peace with Carthage, the Romans took possession of Sardinia in 228, where the mercenary troops of Carthage had revolted. Hamilcar, who was at the head of the democratic party, now undertook the conquest of Spain, whose rich mines tempted the Carthaginians. For the success of this enterprise, within 17 years, Carthage was indebted to the family of Barcas, which could boast of the glorious names of Hamilcar, Asdrubal and Hannibal. To secure the possession of this acquisition, Asdrubal founded New Carthage (now Carthagena), the most powerful of all the Carthaginian colonies. The second Punic war (218-201 B. C.), notwithstanding the abilities of the general, ended with the subjugation of Carthage. Hannibal, neglected by his countrymen, and weakened by a victory that cost him much blood, was obliged to leave Italy, in order to hasten to the assistance of Carthage, which was threatened by the Romans. The battle at Zama, in the neighborhood of Carthage, resulted in favor of the Romans. Scipio granted the city peace under the severest conditions. Carthage ceded Spain, delivered up all her ships of war except 10, paid 10,000 talents (about $10,000,000), and promised to engage in no war without the consent of the Romans. Besides this, Masinissa, the ally of Rome, and implacable enemy of Carthage, was placed on the Numidian throne. This king, under the protection of Rome, deprived the Carthaginians of the best part of their possessions, and destroyed their trade in the interior of Africa.

The third war with the Romans was a desperate contest. The disarmed Carthaginians were obliged to demolish their cwn walls. Then, taking up arms anew, they fought for death or life. After three years, the younger Scipio ended this war by the destruction of the city, B. C. 146. Augustus peopled it anew, and it regained some degree of renown. From A. D. 429 to 534, it was the residence of the Vandal kings. But the Arabians destroy

ed it a second time, and few traces now remain of it, except an aqueduct.

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The government of Carthage, according to the common opinion, in its origin, was monarchical; afterwards, it is not known how nor when, it became republican. The Phoenician states, likewise, had kings, and their government, too, was republican. As no distinct period is mentioned when the government received its form, the constitution seems to have been gradually formed, mostly by and through domestic troubles. The government was posed of the suffetes, the senate, the tribunal of the hundred, and the freemen. The suffetes were at the head of affairs, and were commonly called kings, by the Greek authors, and consuls by the Romans. They were permanent officers, and not, like the Roman consuls, chosen for short periods. The Carthaginian senate seems to have been a permanent and numerous body, in which there was a smaller committee, composed, probably, of the elder members. As regards the power of the senate, and its relation to the people, we know that the former had the right of deliberating beforehand on all affairs that were to be referred to the people. If the suffetes agreed with the senate, the business might be referred to the people, or not, as these magistrates saw fit; but if they disagreed, it was always referre. to the people; and every citizen had the right of expressing his opinions freely. War and peace, likewise, depended on the decision of the senate. The tribunal of the hundred was chosen from the most respectable families, and was the highest political tribunal. seems, also, to have been in possession of supreme civil jurisdiction. A highly remarkable peculiarity of the Carthaginian government was, the separation of the civil and military power at so early a period. The suffetes were never their generals. The latter were chosen by the people, and, in time of war, had unlimited power in regard to military operations. Affairs of state, on the contrary, alliances, and the like, were administered by a committee of the senate, which was associated with the generals. In this respect, the Carthaginian constitution was superior to the Roman, in which the union of the two powers cost the state its freedom. The religion of Carthage was a branch of the worship of the stars and of fire, which prevailed in the East. Concerning Moloch (Baal or the Sun), the supreme god of the Phoenicians, the human sacrifices, and other peculiarities

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of the Phoenician worship, the bishop of Zealand, doctor Frederic Münter, has published the result of his interesting inquiries, in his Religion of the Carthaginians (Copenhagen, 1821, 2d edition, 4to.). CARTHAGENA; an ancient town on the coast of the kingdom of Murcia, with considerable trade, one of the three great naval harbors of Spain, and the best port of the Mediterranean. The basin is very deep, even quite close to the town. The hills that surround it, with steep ascents, and an island at the mouth of the harbor, protect the vessels from all winds. The town, with the citadel, is situated on a peninsula in the harbor. It contains 29,000 inhabitants, fine wharves, a naval arsenal, a naval school, a mathematical, nautical and pilot academy, an observatory, a botanical garden, a sailcloth manufactory, has some fisheries, and some trade in barilla, silk, &c. In the neighborhood of the town, the Carthaginians possessed mines of silver of such richness, that Hannibal was enabled to carry on the war against the Romans out of their produce. There are hot springs and salt mines in the neighborhood. The town was built by the Carthaginian general Asdrubal.

CARTHAGENA; a province of Colombia, forming, with the provinces Santa Martha and Rio Hacha, the department Magdalena (see Colombia), bordering on the Caribbean sea and the gulf of Darien. The country is composed of mountains and valleys, covered with large and small forests. The variety of plants and trees, as well as fruits, is wonderful. The earth is covered with perpetual verdure. Wheat and other kinds of European grain do not flourish well, but Indian corn and rice are raised in sufficient quantity for the consumption of the inhabitants. The climate is very hot. From May to December, there is a great deal of rain. The variety and beauty of the birds is remarkable. Poultry, pigeons, partridges and geese, are good and plentiful. The fruits of the country are pine-apples, papayas, plantains, &c. The principal town is Carthagena.

CARTHAGENA; a city and seaport of Colombia, capital of the province of the same name; lat. 10° 25′ N.; lon. 77° 30′ W. The population is rated at 24,000. It contains a handsome cathedral, several churches, convents and monasteries. The city is situated on a sandy island, which forms a narrow passage on the S. W. The bay is one of the best in the country. It extends seven miles from N. to S., and

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has a safe anchorage, though the many shallows at the entrance make a careful steerage necessary. There are among the inhabitants of Carthagena very many of Indian descent. The city, like the whole province, is subjected to the inconvenience of periodical rains.

CARTHUSIANS; a religious order, instituted by St. Bruno (q. v.), who, in 1086, built several hermitages in a desert surrounded by hills and rocks, four leagues from Grenoble, and, with six companions, united the ascetic with the monastic life, like the Camaldulians. The inhabitants of this desert built a church, and, by industry and skill, converted into gardens a place which seemed to have been destined for the haunt of wild beasts only. At the same time, they practised the greatest abstinence, wore coarse garments, and eat only vegetables and the coarsest bread. From their original seat (La Chartreuse), they were called Carthusians, and their monasteries, at first only a few in number, were called Chartreuses. Their fifth general, Guigues (died 1137), prescribed, besides the usual monastic vows, eternal silence and solitude. Mechanical labors and copying of books, together with religions worship, constituted their occupation. They observed a strict temperance, and submitted to bleeding five times a year. In 1170, they were confirmed by the pope. In the following centuries, they received additional statutes, which forbade altogether the eating of flesh, and allowed them to speak only during certain hours on Thursdays and the days on which the chapter met. With increasing wealth, however, many embellishments were added to their solitary life, as the great Chartreuse, near Grenoble, and their elegant palace at Naples, prove. The monks were, in general, well informed, hospitable, and remarkable for their neatness.

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was interdicted, but their laws were exceedingly severe against disobedience. Their habit was entirely white within, covered with a black mantle. The lay brothers were distinguished by the beard and a shorter scapulary. The Carthusian nuns originated in 1616. They were dressed in white, like the monks, with a black veil. They obtained permission to dine in common, and to interrupt their silence more frequently. The general of the whole order was always the vicar of the Chartreuse at Grenoble. In the middle of the 18th century, the Carthusian monks occupied 172 monasteries, of which 75 were in France, the others mostly in

Germany and Italy. The Carthusians in Sicily and Spain only have escaped the general abolition of the order

CARTILAGE is a semi-pellucid substance, of a milk-white or pearly color, entering into the composition of several parts of the body. It holds a middle rank, in point of firmness, between bones, or hard parts, and the softer constituents of the human frame. It appears, on a superficial examination, to be homogeneous in its texture; for, when cut, the surface is uniform, and contains no visible cells, cavities, nor pores, but resembles the section of a piece of glue. It possesses a very high degree of elasticity, which property distinguishes it from all other parts of the body. Hence it enters into the composition of parts whose functions require the combination of firmness with pliancy and flexibility, the preservation of a certain external form, with the power of yielding to external force or pressure. Anatomists divide cartilages into two kinds, the temporary and the permanent. The former are confined to the earlier stages of existence; the latter commonly retain their cartilaginous structure throughout life. The temporary cartilages are those in which the bones are formed. All the bones except the teeth are formed in a nidus of cartilage. The permanent cartilages are of various kinds. They compose the external ear and external aperture of the nostrils and eyelids. The larynx is formed entirely of this substance, and the trachea or windpipe, with its branches, is furnished with cartilaginous hoops, by which these tubes are kept permanently open for the ready passage of air to and from the lungs. The bodies of the vertebræ are joined by large masses of a peculiar substance, partaking of the properties and appearance of cartilage and ligament, which allow of the motions of these parts on each other, without weakening the support that is afforded to the upper parts of the body in general, and to the head in particular, by the vertebral column. These cartilages impart great elasticity to the spine, by which the effects of concussion from jumping, from falls, &c., are weakened and destroyed before they can be propagated to the head. When the body has been long in an erect position, the compression of these cartilages, by the superior parts, diminishes the height of the person. They recover their former length when freed from this pressure. Hence a person is taller when he rises in the morning, than after sustaining the fatigues of the day,

and the difference has sometimes amounted to an inch. Cartilages are sometimes interposed between the articular surfaces of bones, where they fill up irregularities that might otherwise impede the motions of the part, and increase the security of the joint by adapting the articular surfaces to each other. These surfaces are, in every instance, covered by a thin crust of cartilage, having its surface most exquisitely polished, by which all friction in the motions of the joint is avoided.

CARTOON has many significations. In painting, it denotes a sketch on thick paper, pasteboard, or other material, which is used as a model for a large picture, especially in fresco, oil, tapestry, and, formerly, in glass and mosaic. In fresco painting, cartoons are particularly useful ; because, in this, a quick process is necessary, and a fault cannot easily be corrected. In applying cartoons, the artist commonly traces them through, covering the back of the design with black lead or red chalk; then, laying the picture on the wall, or other matter, he passes lightly over each stroke of the design with a point, which leaves an impression of the color on the plate or wall; or the outlines of the figures are pricked with a needle, and then, the cartoon being placed against the wall, a bag of coal-dust is drawn over the holes, in order to transfer the outlines to the wall. In fresco painting, the figures were formerly cut out, and fixed firmly on the moist plaster. The painter then traced their contour with a pencil of wood or iron; so that the outlines of the figures appeared on the fresh plaster, with a slight but distinct impression, when the cartoon was taken away. In the manufacture of a certain kind of tapestry, the figures are still cut out, and laid behind or under the woof, by which the artist directs his operations. In this case, the cartoons must be colored. Of this kind are the cartoons which Raphael executed for pope Leo X, from which the famous tapestries of Raphael (see Tapestry and Raphael) in the Netherlands were woven. There were twelve of them, representing histories taken from the New Testament. Seven of them are still extant, and may be seen at Hampton court, near London. The best copy of them has been taken by Nicholas Dorigny, and the collection is called Pinacotheca Hamptoniana. (See Richardson's historical and critical description of them). Rubens bought these cartoons for Charles I, and king William built a gallery for them at Hampton court. The cartoon of the school of Athens, carried

to Paris by the French, and a fragment of the battle of Maxentius and Constantine, are preserved in the Ambrosian gallery at Milan. There are likewise cartoons by Giulio Romano in the Sala Borgia, by Domenichino and other Italian masters, who caused their pictures to be executed, in a great degree, by their scholars, after these cartoons. The value set upon cartoons by the old Italian masters may be seen by Giov. B. Armenini's Precetti della Pittura (Venice, 1687, 4to.). In later times, large paintings, particularly in fresco, were not executed so frequently. The artists also labored with less care, and formed their great works more from small sketches. In modern times, some German artists have prepared accurate cartoons. Among them is Cornelius, whose cartoons, for his fresco-paintings in Múnich, have acquired much celebrity. He prepared, too, a cartoon for the fresco picture represent ing Joseph interpreting the Dream. Overbeck, also, has made cartoons, from which he has painted the Seven Years of Famine, and the Selling of Joseph. The Seven Years of Plenty he executed, with the assistance of William Schadow and Philip Veit. The representations of Joseph's history, just mentioned, the late Prussian consul-general Bertholdy has caused to be executed in fresco, at his residence in Rome, by the above-named artists. For the villa Massimi, near Roine, Overbeck has prepared cartoons representing scenes from Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered; Julius Schnorr, illustrations of Ariosto, and Veit, scenes taken from Dante.

CARTOUCH, in architecture, sculpture, &c., denotes an ornament representing a scroll of paper, being usually in the form of a table, or flat member, with wavings, whereon is some inscription or device. In heraldry; a name given to a sort of oval shields, much used by the popes and secular princes in Italy, and others, both clergy and laity, for painting or engraving their arms on.-In the military art; a wooden case, about three inches thick at bottom, and girt round with marline, holding 2, 3, or 400 musket balls, with 8 or 10 iron balls, weighing one pound each, to be fired from a mortar, gun or howitzer, for the defence of a pass, retrenchment, &c. It is also used for a cartridge-box, now employed mostly by the cavalry. The charge of a cannon is also sometimes called by this name.Cartouche is likewise the name given by the French literati to that oval ring, or border, which includes, in the Egyptian hieroglyphics, the names of persons of

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high distinction, as M. Champollion has proved. This border was thought, at first, by Zoëga, to include every proper name.

CARTOUCHE, Louis Dominique. The pilfering propensities of this man, who was born at Paris, near the end of the 17th century, early showed themselves. Being expelled from school, and afterwards from his father's house, for theft, he joined a band of rogues in Normandy, and then put himself at the head of a numerous company of banditti in Paris, over which he exercised the power of life and death. He was first apprehended in a tavern, in 1721, and brought to the Chatelet. On the rack, he named none of his accomplices. But when he arrived at the place of execution, where he was to be broken alive on the wheel, and found that his companions had not assembled to his rescue, he retracted, and named his accomplices, to gain a respite. His execution soon followed. Various authors have described his adventurous, and, in some respects, interesting life.

CARTRIDGE; a case of paper, parchment, or flannel, fitted to the bore of firearms, and filled with gun-powder, to expedite the discharge of the piece. Cartridges are of two sorts, viz. ball-cartridges, used in firing balls, and blank-cartridges, used in firing without ball. Riflemen avoid the use of cartridges, because the cartridge injures the shot of a rifle. In most armies, a soldier carries 60 cártridges into battle.

CARTWRIGHT, Edmund, was born in 1743, in Nottinghamshire (brother of major John Cartwright, the well-known advocate of parliamentary reform), and studied at Oxford. His poems were very popular, especially a ballad entitled Armyne and Elvira, 1771. He was one of the principal contributors to the Monthly Review. He is also distinguished for his mechanical inventions. In 1786, he took out a patent for a weaving machine; for which he obtained from parliament a grant of £10,000, and was often rewarded with prizes for his inventions. For the last 30 years of his life, he was employed in plans for propelling carriages and boats by steam. He died in 1824.

CARTWRIGHT, John, an English gentleman, celebrated for his exertions in the cause of political reform, was born in 1740, at Marnham, Nottinghamshire, of an ancient family. His early education was rather deficient; but he made some progress in mechanics and practical mathematics. He entered the navy, and be

came a first lieutenant in 1766. In 1774, his attention was turned to politics. In his Letters on American Independence, written in this year, he advocated a union between the colonies and the mother state, under separate legislatures, and argued this great question on the foundation of natural, inherent right; maintaining "that the liberty of inan is not derived from charters, but from God, and that it is original in every one." In 1775, he was appointed major of the Nottinghamshire militia, and, after several ineffectual attempts, on the part of government, to remove him from that post, his dismission was finally accomplished, in 1792, in consequence of an act of parliament. In the American war, lord Howe was desirous of having him with him in America; but major Cartwright, although always eager for promotion in the navy, refused the proposal, alleging that he could not fight in a cause which he disapproved.-From this time, he devoted himself to the two great objects of annual parliaments and universal suffrage. In 1779, he succeeded in the establishment of a Society for Constitutional Information, and was the author of a Declaration of Rights, distributed by the society, which, sir William Jones said, "ought to be written in letters of gold."-The French revolution was warmly welcomed by Cartwright, as by other friends of liberty. The alliance of the sovereigns, which soon followed, he considered equally irreconcilable with policy and with national justice. The subsequent prosecutions against the friends of reform, the fate of Muir and of Holt, occasioned no small dismay among the people. In the trials of Tooke, Hardy, Thelwall and others, Cartwright took a great interest, was present as a witness, and displayed much openness, fearlessness and firmness. By his writings, public addresses, &c., he continued to promote the work of reform and constitutional liberty; and, as late as 1819, he was tried for conspiracy and sedition, for advising the inhabitants of Birmingham to send what he called their "legislatorial attorney" to the house; but he escaped with a fine of £100.-Major Cartwright was not a political reformer only. The plan of making the slave-trade piracy, is said to have been first developed in his Letters on the Slave-Trade. The information which he furnished to Daines Barrington respecting the possibility of approaching the north pole; his plan for a perpetual supply of English oak for the navy, which has since been partially

adopted, and several other useful projects and inventions, are sufficient evidences of his enterprise, activity and diversified knowledge. He died in 1824, in the 84th year of his age. He has been described as alike just in all the relations of life, as a citizen, a politician, a husband and a friend; disinterested, firm and fearless; and Fox, upon presenting one of his petitions to the house, remarked, "He is one, whose enlightened mind and profound constitutional knowledge place him in the highest rank of public characters, and whose purity of principle, and consistency of conduct through life, command the most respectful attention to his opinions." The most prominent traits of his character are enterprise, firmness and persɛverance. He was a fruitful writer, quick, ingenious, powerful in argument, and sometimes eloquent. His language is plain, pure and strong.

CARVER, Jonathan, was born in Connecticut, in 1732. He embraced a military career, and, in the French war, commanded with reputation a company of provincials, in the expedition across the lakes, against Canada. When peace was concluded, in 1763, captain Carver undertook to explore the vast territory which Great Britain had gained. His object was, to acquire a knowledge of the manners, customs, languages, soil, and natural productions of the nations and region beyond the Mississippi, and to ascertain the breadth of the continent by penetrating to the Pacific over its widest part, between N. lat. 43° and 46°. He accordingly set out from Boston in 1766, and, having reached Michillimackinac, the remotest English post, applied to Mr. Rogers, the governor, for an assortment of goods, as presents for the Indians dwelling in the parts through which his course was to be directed. Receiving a portion of the supply which he desired, and a promise that the residue should be sent to him at the falls of St. Anthony, he continued his journey. But, not obtaining the goods at the appointed place, in consequence of their having been disposed of elsewhere by those to whom the governor had intrusted them, he found it necessary to return to la Prairie du Chien. He then, in the beginning of the year 1767, directed his steps northward, with a view of finding a communication from the heads of the Mississippi into lake Superior, in order to meet, at the grand portage on the north-west side of that lake, the traders that usually come, about this season, from Michillimackinac, from whom