he intended to purchase goods, and then to pursue his journey. He reached lake Superior in good time; but, unfortunately, the traders whom he met there could not furnish him with any goods, as they had barely enough for their own purposes, and, in consequence, he was obliged to return to the place whence he first departed, which he did in October, 1768, after remaining some months on the north and east borders of lake Superior, and exploring the bays and rivers that empty themselves into that body of water. He soon after repaired to England, with the view of publishing his journal and charts, and of obtaining a reimbursement for the expenses which head incurred. Having undergone a long examination before the lords commissioners of trade and plantations, he received permission to publish his papers; but, when they were nearly ready for the press, an order was issued from the council-board, requiring him to deliver immediately into the plantationoffice all his charts and journals. He was, consequently, obliged to re-purchase them, at a great expense, from the bookseller to whom he had disposed of thema loss for which he received no indemnification, but was forced to be satisfied with that obtained for his other expenses. He had fortunately kept copies of his papers, and he published them ten years afterwards, in Boston, while in the situation of clerk of a lottery. Having sold his name to a historical compilation, which was published in 1779, in folio, entitled The New Universal Traveller, containing an account of all the empires, kingdoms and states in the known world, he was abandoned by those whose duty it was to support him, and died in want of the common necessaries of life, in 1780, aged 48 years.-Besides his travels above noticed, captain Carver published a tract on the culture of tobacco.

CARY, Lucius (viscount Falkland), one of those rare characters who serve as proverbial instances of social excellence, was born about the year 1610. Being carried young into Ireland, he received part of his education at Trinity college, Dublin, and part at St. John's college, Cambridge. His youth did not pass without irregularities, but they were suddenly closed by his marriage with a young lady of small fortune, whom he passionately loved. After passing some time abroad, he returned home, and devoted himself to a life of retirement, and the cultivation of polite literature. In 1633, he was appointed one of the gentlemen of the bed

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chamber to Charles I, but still chiefly resided at his seat at Burford, near Oxford, which he made a kind of academy of learned men, being continually surrounded by the most eminent men of the neighboring universities. Here it was that Chillingworth composed his famous. work against popery; and questions of morals, theology and literature were discussed, in a congenial circle, with the utmost freedom. Lord Falkland himself was deeply read in works of controversy; but in him they produced only strictness of principle, and an aspiration after perfection, without debasing the man in the exaltation of the scholar. In 1639, he joined the expedition against Scotland; and, in 1640, his peerage being Scotch, he was chosen member of the house of commons for Newport, in the Isle of Wight. In the first instance, like many of the most honorable characters of the day, he warmly supported parliament. He spoke with severity against Finch and Strafford, and was so disgusted with the proceedings of Laud, that he concurred in the first bill for depriving the bishops of a vote in the house of lords. A strong attachment, however, to established forms, and some doubts of the ultimate objects of the parliamentary leaders, caused him to retract; and he afterwards strongly opposed the same measure. He still, however, kept at a distance from the court; but his high character rendered it so great an object to gain him over to the king's service, that at length he was induced to accept a seat in the council, and the office of secretary of state. While in office, he refused to employ spies or open suspected letters. He very decidedly embraced the party of the king, when hostilities commenced, and attended him at the battle of Edge-hill, and the siege of Gloucester. A view, however, of the evils impending over the country, and, very probably, a conviction of sinister objects on both sides, broke his spirits. He would frequently sit abstracted among his friends, and, sighing deeply, exclaim, "Peace, peace!" and exhibit every sign of grief and anxiety. His closing scene almost proves a determination to die in battle, as he volunteered his services at the battle of Newbury, without a command, and, putting himself in the front rank of lord Byron's regiment, was struck from his horse by a musket-shot, and was found, the next day, dead upon the field.-—Such was the fate of lord Falkland, at the age of 34; and, while the universal praises which he has received are, doubtless, very

much owing to the elaborate character drawn of him by his friend Clarendon, there can be no doubt of the strict integrity of his character and intentions. As a man of active talent, he claims little admiration, and was evidently framed for that life of studious retirement and mental culture in which he so much delighted. One of his sayings marks his taste and character-" I pity unlearned gentlemen on a rainy day." Lord Falkland left behind him several published speeches and pamphlets on political and theological subjects, as also a few poenis.

CARYATIDES; a kind of pillars, which represent the upper part of female bodies. The name is of Greek origin. The goddess Diana, who had a temple in Karyatis, a Peloponnesian city, was, for this reason, called Karyatis. In honor of her, virgins danced in a festive procession, on the feast of Karyatis, which suggested to architects the idea of adopting the image of virgins in a kind of column which ornamented the Pantheon. Thus Lessing explains the name and form of the Caryatides. Another explanation of the origin of Caryatides is the following: The inhabitants of Carya, a city of Peloponnesus, allied themselves with the barbarians in the Persian war. The Greeks, on the successful termination of that struggle, exterminated the males of Carya, and reduced all the women to slavery. The captives, as a further mark of infamy, were forbidden to lay aside the robes in which they had decorated the conquerors' triumph; and the architects of the time, to perpetuate the memory of the transaction, made statues representing these women in the servile office of supporting entablatures. (See Architecture, i. 340.)

CASA, Giovanni della, an Italian poet and orator, of an ancient and noble family of Mugello, near Florence, was born 1503, studied at Bologna, Padua, Rome, and entered, as an ecclesiastic, into the service of the two cardinals Alessandro Farnese, the first of whom, in 1534, ascended the papal chair, under the name of Paul III. He rose through various offices in the church, till Paul IV made him his private secretary. He died probably in 1556. His most celebrated work is Galateo, ovvero de' Costumi, to which one, Degli uffizj, Communi tra gli Amici Superiori e Inferiori, forms a supplement. This last is a translation of his Latin treatise, De Officiis inter Potentiores et Tenuiores Amicos. The best and most complete edition of his works appeared at Venice, 1752, in 3 vols., 4to.

CASANOVA, Francis, a painter famous for his battle-pieces, born at London, 1730, went, while a boy, to Venice, where he applied himself to the art of painting. He afterwards obtained admission into the academy in Dresden, and painted several pieces for the prince Condè. The spirit and liveliness of his coloring and execution cannot be surpassed. At the request of Catharine of Russia, he painted, in Vienna, a piece representing the victory of this princess over the Turks, which she afterwards put up in her palace. He was constantly occupied with his art, and died at Brühl, near Vienna, 1805.-His brother John, likewise a painter, was born 1729, at London; died, 1795, at Dresden, where he was professor and superintendent in the academy of painting, and had instructed many able pupils in his art. His work on the Ancient Monuments of Art, published in Italian, and also in German (Leipsic, 1771), is still in esteem.

CASANOVA, John James de Seingalt; eldest brother of the preceding; born at Venice, 1725; known by his Memoirs as an original and gay-tempered man, who acted an interesting part in all situations, amongst all classes of society, and in all the large cities of Europe. His various adventures are related by himself in a most entertaining manner. They were first published, in part, at Leipsic, 1826, in a German translation. The French original has since appeared. His father, Cajetan John James, a descendant of the Spanish family of Palafox, falling in love with a dancer, turned actor, but afterwards united himself with the daughter of a shoemaker, Fanosi, who followed the profession of her husband. James Casanova, their eldest son, received the rudiments of his education in Padua, and made rapid progress in the Latin language, as well as in the other branches of learning. His ardent temperament, early developed, soon, however, involved him in many adventures, that served to sharpen his observation, and enlarge his knowledge of human nature. He studied law, and, in his 16th year, wrote two dissertations; one, De Testamentis, the other on the question, Utrum Hebræi possint_construere novas Synagogas. His talent for shining in society introduced him, at Venice, into the select circles, in which a refined but frivolous tone of manners prevailed. The patriarch of Venice gave him the inferior ordination, and his first sermon was received with general applause. But he failed in his second; and from this period commences his restless

career, in which he became entangled in a series of love adventures, that can be understood only from his memoirs. He is arrested in Venice, comes into personal contact with pore Benedict XIV at Rome, goes to Constantinople, is in the military service at Corfu, and, in short, visits all the principal cities of Europe, being continually connected with the highest personages, is followed and caressed, till at last he accompanies the count of Waldstein to Dux, in Bohemia, where he becomes his librarian. He died at Vienna, in 1803. The escape of Casanova from the lead prisons of Venice was managed with admirable address and ingenuity. He has left several works in Italian and French, which give proof of the great powers of this Proteus, though he was more at home in the bustling world than in the pursuits of learning. Of these may be mentioned Confutazione della Storia del Goberno Veneto d'Amelot de la Houssaie, divisa in tre Parti (Amsterdam, 1769); Istoria delle Turbulenze della Polonia dalla Morte di Elisabet Petrouna fino alla pace fra la Russia e la Porta Ottomana, in cui si trovano tutti gli Avenimenti Cagioni della Rivoluzione di quel Regno (Gratz, 1774, 3 vols.); Histoire de ma Fuite des Prisons de la Republique de Venise, qu'on appelle les Plombs (Prague, 1788). His memoirs are a mirror of the manners of his time.

CASAS, Bartholomew de las, a Spanish prelate, was born at Seville in 1474, and, in his 19th year, accompanied his father, who sailed with Columbus, to the West Indies. Five years afterwards, he returned to Spain, and, pursuing his studies, entered the ecclesiastical order. He again accompanied Columbus in his second voyage to Hispaniola, and, on the conquest of Cuba, settled there, and distinguished himself by his humane conduct towards the oppressed natives, of whom he became, in a manner, the patron. He set at liberty the Indians who had fallen to his share in the division; and so much was he interested for them, that, in 1516, he went to Spain to lay a statement of their case before king Ferdinand, whose death, at that time, prevented any measures for their redress. The regent, cardinal Ximenes, however, appointed a commission to examine circumstances upon the spot, and to determine accordingly. Las Casas was to accompany them, with the title of protector of the Indians. The commissioners found that it was impossible to liberate the Indians, and therefore endeavored to secure them humane treat

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ment; but Las Casas, still dissatisfied, remonstrated so warmly, that he was obliged to take refuge in a convent, from the rage of the planters. He again returned to Europe, and, on the accession of Charles V, in consequence of his representations, the council appointed a chief judge, to reexamine the points of controversy between the partisans of Indian liberty and the colonists. Las Casas, by a singular inconsistency, in his zeal for the Indians, became the author of the slave-trade, by proposing to purchase Negroes from the Portuguese in Africa, to supply the planters with laborers, of the want of whom they complained; and this was unfortunately put into execution. He next applied for a grant of an unoccupied tract, in order to try his own plan with a new colony. This he at length obtained, and, with 200 persons, whom he persuaded to accompany him, landed at Porto Rico in 1521, but found that an expedition was advancing to ravage this very tract, and convey its inhabitants to Hispaniola as slaves. He endeavored in vain to prevent the threatened danger, and, with the few who still adhered to him, returned to Hispaniola to solicit succor. During his absence, the natives attacked the colonists with such success, that, in a short time, not a Spaniard remained in that part of South America. Las Casas, in despair at the failure of his project, retired to the Dominican convent at St. Domingo, and assumed the habit of the order. Notwithstanding his retirement, his zeal in the cause of the Indians did not abate; and, being sent on a mission to Spain, by a chapter of his order at Chiapa, in 1542, he pleaded their cause with his pristine warmth, and composed his famous treatise Brevissima Relacion de la Destruccion des Indes, in which he exposed the cruelties practised by the Spaniards. His unremitting perseverance at length obtained a new set of laws and regulations, by which the natives were greatly relieved. In 1544, he returned to America as bishop of Chiapa, and continued there until 1551, when he resigned his bishopric, and again returned to Spain. He died at Madrid in 1556, in the 92d year of his age. Besides the treatise abovenamed, he was also the author of a treatise, in Latin, on the question-"Whether sovereigns may in conscience, by virtue of any right, alienate their subjects from their crown, and transfer them to the dominion of any other lord ?" which difficult question he treats with great freedom, spirit and delicacy. He also composed

several works which have never been published, among which is a General History of the Indies, which was a great assistance to Antonio de Herrera in his history. All his works evince profound learning, and solid judgment and piety; and, notwithstanding his great inconsistency in regard to the Negroes, he must be regarded as a very benevolent man, and a lover of mankind.

CASAUBON, Isaac de (commonly called Casaubonus), born Feb. 18, 1559, at Geneva, of a family from Dauphiny, was educated by his father, a clergyman. In his 9th year, he spoke Latin fluently. In his 19th year, he entered the university at Geneva, where he studied jurisprudence, theology, and the Oriental languages, and, in 1582, succeeded Portus as professor of the Greek language. He here married the daughter of Henry Stephens, and published, every year, editions of Greek and Latin authors, with critical notes and translations. In 1596, he accepted a professorship of Greek and belles-lettres at Montpellier, but held it only two years. Henry IV invited him to Paris. His religious principles (the same as those for which his father had left his country), the jealousy of the other professors, and perhaps his rather unyielding character, were the occasion of many unpleasant occurrences, for which, however, he was indemnified by the office of royal librarian. After the death of Henry IV, he followed sir Henry Wotton, envoy extraordinary from James I, to England, where he was received with distinction, had two benefices and a pension conferred on him, and died at London, July 1, 1614. buried in Westminster abbey. Casaubon was a liberal theologian, a man of extensive learning, a good translator, and an excellent critic. As a critic, he has commented on Diogenes Laertius, Aristotle, Theophrastus, Suetonius, Persius, Polybius, Theocritus, Strabo, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Athenæus, Pliny the Younger, &c. Nearly all the ancient classics are indebted to his valuable researches. His profound dissertation on the satirical poetry of the Greeks and the satire of the Romans (De Satyrica Græcorum Poësi et Romanorum Satyra) deserves particular praise. His theological writings are of less value.

He was

CASAUBON, Meric, son of the preceding, born at Geneva, 1599, likewise distinguished himself by his learning. He followed his father to England, and was made doctor of divinity at Oxford. He filled successively several offices in the

church, when the revolution, which brought Charles I to the scaffold, deprived him of his income. Still he rejected the proposal of Cromwell to write the history of his time, as also the invitation of queen Christina to live in Sweden. On the return of the Stuarts, he was rewarded for his loyalty by restoration to his office in the church, which he held till his death, 1671. His learning was various and ex tensive, but not so profound as his fa ther's. He published, besides his theological works, observations on several classic authors; e. g., Tcrence, Epictetus, Florus, Polybius, &c.

CASCO BAY; a bay in Maine, between cape Elizabeth on W. S. W. and cape Small Point on E. N. E. Within these capes, which are about 20 miles apart, there are about 300 sinall islands; most of which are cultivated, and are much. more productive than the main land on the coast of Maine. Portland harbor is on the W. side of the bay.

CASE, ACTION UPON THE. Actio super causam is a general action, given for the redress of a wrong done any man without force, and not especially provided for by law, in order to have satisfaction for damage. This is called an action on the case, because the whole cause or case is set down in the writ; and there is no other action given in the case, except where the plaintiff has his choice to bring this or another action. This action lies in a variety of instances; as for words spoken or written, which affect a person's life, reputation, office or trade, or tend to his loss of preferment in marriage or service, or to his disinheritance, or which occasion him any particular damage. Action on the case likewise lies upon an assumpsit. (q. v.) It lies, also, in all instances wherein no general action could be framed; e. g., against carriers; against a common innkeeper, for goods stolen in his house; for deceit in contracts, bargains and sales; for neglect or malfeasance; for injuries done in commons; for malicious prosecution and false arrests; against sheriffs, for default in executing writs, permitting escapes, &c.; for conspiracy, nuisances, &c. &c.

CASE, in grammar. (See Language.) CASE-HARDENING is a process by which iron is superficially converted into steel, in such articles as require the toughness of the former, conjointly with the bardness of the latter substance. The articles intended for case-hardening are first manufactured in iron, and are then placed in an iron box, with vegetable or animal

coals in powder, to undergo cementation. Immersion of the heated pieces into water hardens the surface, which is afterwards polished. Coarse files and gunbarrels are among the articles most commonly case-hardened.

CASEMATES (from the Spanish casa, a house, and matare, to kill), in fortification; vaults which are proof against bombs, under the main wall, particularly in bastions, for the purpose of defending the moat of a fortification, also for making countermines. They serve, at the same time, as a place for keeping the heavy ordnance, and, in case of necessity, as habitations for the garrison.

CASE-SHOT, in artillery, is formed by putting a quantity of small iron balls into a cylindrical tin box, called a canister, that just fits the bore of the gun. In case of necessity, the canister is filled with broken pieces of iron, nails, stones, &c. The case is closed at both ends by wood. Shot of this sort are thrown from cannons and howitzers. In sieges, sometimes, instead of cases, bags are used. This kind of shot is very injurious to the enemy, because the balls contained in the canister spread, diverging in proportion to the distance. The amount of divergence is, to the distance which the shot reaches, generally in the proportion of 1 to 10; thus, at the distance of 600 paces, they make a circle of 60 paces diameter. The canisters used in the Prussian army contain balls of 1, 14, 3, 4, 6, 8 and 12 ounces and of 1 pound. The distance which the shot will reach varies according to the weight and number of the balls. A sixpounder shoots canister balls of 1 ounce from 200 to 500 paces; twelve and twenty-four-pounders shoot balls of 1 pound 800 to 1000 paces. The number of the balls varies according to their weight.

CASES, Emanuel, count of. (See Las Cases.)

CASHMERE (17,291 sq. miles, 2,000,000 inhabitants) in Hindostan, now a province of the Afghan state of Cabul, in Asia, is a very celebrated valley, surrounded by the gigantic mountains of Asia, the Himalaya and Hindoo Koh, and traversed by the river Behat or Chelum (formerly Hydaspes). From three sides, seven passes only lead to this region; to the east, the Himalaya presents an insurmountable barrier of snow. The splendor and sublimity of the diadem of snow-capped mountains, the beauty and richness of the hills, which form the ascent to the higher peaks, it is impossible to describe. The elevated situ

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ation of the valley, and the mountains of snow which surround it, render the cli mate rather cold; but it is, on the whole, moderate and mild. This region, so rich in romantic scenery, is watered by numerous streams, and is blessed with an abundance of the finest productions. The Asiatics, therefore, call it the paradise of India, the flower-garden, and the garden of eternal spring. The hills are covered with forests and Alpine pastures; at the foot of these are fields of corn; along the sides of the rivers, rice is planted; rich orchards extend over the foremost range of hills; mulberry trees are cultivated in abundance, for the support of silk-worms, and are entwined with vines, from whose grapes wine, very similar to Madeira, is prepared. The fruits of warm climates do not ripen here. The valley is famous for its flowers, with which all the gardens and meadows abound. Violets, roses, narcissuses, and innumerable European flowers, besides many that are not known in Europe, grow wild. The inhabitants are Hindoos, of the religion of Brama, although they are under the dominion of the Afghans, who profess the Mohammedan religion. Their language is a dialect of the Sanscrit. They manufacture their celebrated shawls in great perfection. The wool which they use for this purpose comes from Thibet and Tartary, in which countries, only, the goat, from which it is taken, is said to thrive. About 80,000 shawls are made yearly, in 16,000 iooms, each of which employs 3 workmen. The capital, Cashmere (likewise Serinagur), the largest town in the whole empire of Afghanistan, is situated on the Behat, and contains 200,000 inhabitants.

Cashmere Goat, a nobler species of the common goats, is descended from the goat of Thibet, which pastures on the Himalaya. The climate in Thibet is subject to sudden changes. There is little rain, but much snow, as the cold in winter is below the freezing point. Thibet is situated at the northern descent of the Himalaya mountains, and Cashmere at the southern; hence the latter is a little warmer than Thibet. In Thibet, this goat is a domestic `animal. It is not allowed a very luxuriant pasture. The favorite food of these animals is buds, aromatic plants, rue and heath. The people of Thibet give their goats, at least once a week, some salt, which has always proved a useful accompaniment to the customary food of these animals. If they are transferred from their cold, mountainous abode into a warmer country, the