Ganges, the Brahmapootra, Dummooda, and several other rivers, so connected by various streams, and the annual inundations, that there is scarcely a town which does not enjoy the benefits of an inland navigation, the boats employed in which are of various sizes and shapes, many of them very handsome, and fitted both for convenience and state. The Delta of the Ganges, the water of which is either salt or brackish, exhibits a labyrinth of uninhabited inland navigation; and in other parts of the country, during the rainy season, some hundred miles of rice fields may be sailed over. These inundations are, however, frequently the cause of much injury, by carrying away the cattle, stores of grain, and habitations of the poor peasants. The greater proportion of the inhabitants of B. are Hindoos: they are olive-colored, with black hair and eyes. They are small and delicate in their persons, and, although very timid, are litigious; humble to their superiors, and insolent to their inferiors. In youth, they are quick and inquisitive, and would probably be much improved by their intercourse with Europeans, but for the supreme contempt in which they hold other nations, from the notion of their being degraded Hindoos. The indigent wear scarcely any clothing other than a rag round their waist: the rich, when out of doors, dress much like Mohammedans; within the house, they usually resume their old national costume, which consists merely of different pieces of cloth twisted round the body, and having one end tucked into the folds. No small part of the population are Mohammedans; they are the descendants of the Afghan and Mogul conquerors, and Arabian merchants, softened, in the course of time, by an intermixture with Hindoo women, converts, and children, whom they purchased during a scarcity, and educated in their own religion. There are also a number of the descendants of the Portuguese, and of various other nations; and, in spite of the checks held out by the English against colonization, it is probable, that, in the course of another century, their descendants will become so nuinerous, that it will be necessary to permit them to become cultivators of the soil.-The thermometer, part of the year, in B., is as high as 100 degrees, and the climate is injurious to European constitutions. The year is there divided into three seasons, viz. the hot, the rainy and the cold: the former begins in March, and ends in June; the rains then commence, and continue

till October; after which it becomes cool, and the weather continues pleasant for four months.—Of the ancient history of B. we have no authentic information. It is said to have been sometimes an independent kingdom, and at other times tributary to Magadha (Behar). In the institutes of Akbar, a list of 61 Hindoo kings is given; but the number of years assigned to many of the reigns does away its credibility. B. was first invaded and conquered by the Afghan Mohammedans in A. D. 1203, and continued tributary to the emperor of Delhi till the year 1340, when Fakher Addeen, a confiden tial servant of the governor, murdered his master, and, having seized the reins of government, threw off his allegiance, and took the title of sultan Sekunder. From this period till 1538, B. remained an independent kingdom, when it was conquered by Shere Shah, who shortly after annexed it to Delhi. From the descendants of Shere Shah it was conquered by the emperor Akbar, and continued subject to Delhi, or nominally so, till the year 1757, when it fell into the hands of the English, who have gradually changed its form of government, and introduced a code of regulations, founded on the Hindoo, Mohammedan and English laws, by which impartial justice is administered to all the inhabitants, and toleration granted to all religions, owing to which the country improves, and the population increases. The cities of Gour, Tonda, Rajemahil, Dacca and Moorshedabad have each, at various times, been the capital; but, since the conquest of it by the English, Calcutta is become the seat of gov-. ernment. The government of this presidency is vested in the supreme council, consisting of the governor-general and three counsellors. The former is appointed by the king; the latter are chosen by the court of directors from the civil servants of at least 12 years' standing. For the administration of justice, there is 1 supreme court at Calcutta, 6 courts of appeal and circuit, and 46 inferior magistrates, stationed in as many different towns or districts. The circuit courts are formed by 3 judges, with an assistant and native officers. Criminal cases are tried by the Mohammedan law, in form and name, but so modified as to approach nearly, in fact, to the English; and capital sentences are confirmed by the nizamat adalat, or supreme court at Calcutta. The district magistrates or judges, as they are often called, have each a registrar and one or more of the junior civil servants,

as assistants, with native lawyers, Mussulman and Hindoo. An appeal lies from their sentence, in almost all cases, to the provincial court. The average size of a district in this presidency is about 6000 square miles. In civil causes, the respective codes of the Mohammedans and Hindoos are generally followed. In 1793, regular advocates, educated at the Mohammedan and Hindoo colleges at Calcutta and Benares, were appointed to plead in these courts. Their fees are regulated by law. Written pleadings are allowed, and written evidence must sometimes be admitted, on account of the disinclination of the Asiatics to have women appear in public.-Domestic slavery is permitted by law, but the slaves are kindly treated. The number of these slaves it has been thought unsafe to ascertain. Their marriage is never impeded; but few children are sold, as it is reputed discreditable to sell them, and their manumission is considered an act of piety. Parents themselves, who are reduced by famine, &c., are usually the persons who supply the slave-market. Inability to provide for their children, not the desire of gain, seems to be the real motive of this horrid custom. Slaves, like freemen, are under the protection of law. The Mohammedans may be estimated at one seventh of the whole population. Various estimates of the population have been made at different times, but rather from conjecture than from well-authenticated documents. The sum total for Bengal appears to be 25,306,0v, and there are strong reasons for believing this number to be short of the real amount. The number of native troops, called seapoys (sipahis) or soldiers, was, in 1811, 207.579, besides 5875 invalids. The non-commissioned officers are natives, those who have commissions are Europeans, and the number of the latter in this presidency, at the time above mentioned, was 2024. About 22,000 of the king's troops are also stationed in India, and occasion an expense to the company of about £160,000 per annum.-Before concluding this article, it may be proper to observe, that the Dutch possess the town of Chinsura, the French, Chindunagore, and the Danes, Serampore, with a small territory adjoining each. These towns are situated on the Hoogly river, from 15 to 25 miles above Calcutta.

BENGEL, John Albanus, a famous German theologian, born in 1687, at Winneden, in Würtemburg, studied at Stuttgart and Tübingen, and, in 1713, became a

preacher and professor at Denkendorf. His chief studies were the fathers of the church and the New Testament. He died, after having been appointed to several offices, in 1752. B. was the first Lutheran theologian who applied to the criticism of the New Testament a comprehensive spirit, which embraced the subject in its whole extent, and manifested the power of patient investigation which the study required. His sugges tions for the correction of the text are particularly valuable. In some of his observations, his judgment has been led astray by his inclination to mysticism. His explanation of the Apocalypse has given him, with some persons, the fame of an inspired prophet; with most people, that of an enthusiast. He was esteemed for his private virtues.

BENGER, Miss Elizabeth Ogilvy, was born in 1778, at Portsmouth, in England. She was the daughter of a purser in the navy, who died in 1796, and left his wife and daughter with a slender provision. In 1802, she removed with her mother to London. She soon attracted attention by her verses, and Miss Sarah Wesley early became her patron. She composed some theatrical pieces, which did not meet with success. Mr. Bowyer, the engraver, employed her to write a poem on the Slave-Trade, which, with two others, was published in quarto, with engravings, in 1812. She successively published memoirs of Mrs. Elizabeth Hamilton, memoirs of John Tobin, the dramatist, and notices of Klopstock and his friends, prefixed to a translation of their letters from the German. These writings were followed by the history of Anne Boleyn, which was translated into French, and the memoirs of Elizabeth, queen of Bohemia. She undertook to compile memoirs of Henry IV of France, but the progress of this work was prevented by her death, January 9, 1827. By all who knew her, among whom the editor has the pleasure of counting himself, she was esteemed as a kind, faithful and candid friend, a most affectionate daughter, beloved by all ages and both sexes on account of her fine talents, benevolent disposition, and pure heart.

BENGUELA; a country in Africa, bounded N. by Angola, E. by the country of Jaga Cassangi, S. by Mataman, and W. by the sea. Cape Negro forms its S. W. extremity, whence mountains run northward, in which are contained the springs of many rivers. The productions are similar to those of Angola and Congo;

one of the principal is manioc; divers sorts of palms are found; dates grow in great abundance; the vines naturally form alleys and arbors; cassia and tamarinds also flourish; and, from the humidity of the soil, there are two fruit seasons in the year. The air of the country is exceedingly unwholesome. The chief towns are Old Benguela, St. Philip or New Benguela, Man-kikondo, and Kaschil. Lon. 30° to 35° E.; lat. 13° 30 to 15° 30′ S.

BENIN; a kingdom in the west of Africa, the limits of which are not well ascertained; but the name may be applied to that part of the coast extending from the river Lagos, the eastern limit of the Slave coast, to the Formosa, about 180 miles. The interior limit is unknown. The whole coast presents a succession of estuaries, some of them very broad, and their origin never explored. Between the Lagos and Cross rivers, the number of rivers flowing into the gulf of Guinea is said to exceed 20, some of them very broad and deep. This tract, called the Delta of Benin, is about 260 miles in extent. The aspect of the coast, and the great body of water flowing into the gulf, have led to the supposition that the waters of the Niger here find an entrance into the ocean. This region has been but little explored, and is little known. The country is low and flat, the soil on the banks of the rivers very fertile, but the climate unhealthy. The inhabitants are of a mild disposition; polygamy is practised; almost all labor is performed by females; the governinent is despotic. Chief towns, Benin, Agatton, Bododa, Ozebo and Meiberg, which are situated on the Formosa, the principal

river.

Benin; capital of the above kingdom, on the Formosa; lon. 5° 6′ E; lat. 6° 12′ N. This town, according to some, is 18 miles in circuit, the largest street 3 miles long, and others nearly equal; according to other statements, it is only 4 miles in circuit. The streets are filled with various articles of merchandise, and present the appearance of a crowded market, though always clean. The houses are large, and, though their walls are of clay, the reeds and leaves, with which they are covered, give them a pleasing appearance. The king's palace consists of a great number of square enclosures.

BENJOWSKY, Maurice Augustus, count of, a man of indefatigable activity and extraordinary adventures, born in 1741, at Werbowa, in Hungary, where his father was a general in the Austrian army,

57

entered the same service himself, and acted as lieutenant in the seven years war till 1758. He afterwards studied navigation in Hamburg, Amsterdam and Plymouth. He then went to Poland, joined the confederacy against the Russians, and became colonel, commander of cavalry and quarter-master general. B. was taken prisoner by the Russians in 1769, and sent, the next year, to Kamtschatka. On the voyage thither, he saved the ship that carried him, when in peril from a storm. This circumstance procured him a favorable reception from governor Niloff, whose children he instructed in the German and French languages. Aphanasia, Niloff's younger daughter, fell in love with him. B. prevailed on her father to set him at liberty and to betroth her to him. He had, however, already conceived the project of escaping from Kamtschatka, together with several other conspirators. Aphanasia discovered his design, but `did not forsake him. On the contrary, she warned him when it was resolved to secure his person. Accompanied by Aphanasia, who remained invariably faithful to him, though she had now learned that he was married, B., together with 96 other persons, left Kamtschatka in May, 1771, and sailed to Formosa; from thence to Macao, where many of his companions died, and among them the faithful Aphanasia. At length he arrived in France, where he was commissioned to found a colony in Madagascar; an undertaking of which he foresaw the difficulties, especially as the success depended on the assistance of the officers in the Isle of France, to whom he was referred for the greater part of his equipment. In June, 1774, B. arrived in Madagascar, established a settlement at Foul point, and gained the good will of several tribes, who, in 1776, appointed him their ampansacabe, or king; on which occasion the women also swore allegiance to his wife. Afterwards, he went to Europe, with the design of obtaining for the nation a powerful ally and some commercial advantages. But, on his arrival in France, he was compelled, by the persecutions of the French ministry, to enter into the Austrian service, in which he commanded against the Prussians in the battle of Habelschwerdt, 1778. In 1783, he made an attempt in England to fit out an expedition to Madagascar. He received assistance from private persons in London, and particularly from a commercial house at Baltimore, in America. In

the court, and the followers of the court, patronised songs of gallantry, rondeaux, triolets, madrigals and sonnets, containing sallies of wit, conceits and effusions of gallantry, in the affected style then prevalent. No one succeeded so well in this art as B., who was therefore called, by way of eminence, le poète de la cour. He received many pensions for his performances, and lived at great expense. Wearied, at last, with the life which he led at court, he retired to his country-seat, Gentilly, and died 1691.

BENSLEY, Thomas; a printer in Fleet street, London. He and Bulmer are among the first typographical artists in England. He distinguished himself first by the edition which he printed of the English translation of Lavater's Physiognomy, London, 1789, 5 vols., 4to. The most beautiful productions of his press are Macklin's splendid edition of the English translation of the Bible (1800-15,7 vols., folio), and that of Hume's History of England (1806, 10 vols., folio), both adorned with excellent copper-plates. Among his impressions of a smaller size, the editions of Shakspeare (1803, 7 vols.), and Hume (1803, 10 vols.), with masterly engravings on wood, are distinguished. He has also furnished several well-executed impressions on parchment, and first used the printing-press invented by Koenig and Bauer, for Elliotson's English translation of Blumenbach's Physiology (London, 1818).

BENTHAM, Jeremy, an English lawyer, born in 1749, never appeared at the bar, nor has he published his chief works himself. They have been arranged and translated into French by his friend M. Dumont, and printed partly in Paris and partly in London. Among them are Traités de Législation, civile et pénale, &c. (Paris, 1802, 3 vols.), and Théorie des Peines et des Récompenses (London, 1801, 2 vols.). B. is a friend of reform in parliament, and of a thorough correction of civil and criminal legislation. His Fragments on Government, in opposition to Blackstone, appeared anonymously in 1776, and with his name, London, 1823. In France, his literary labors found a better reception than in England or Germany. A small pamphlet on the liberty of the press (London, 1821) was addressed by him to the Spanish cortes, during their discussion of this subject; and, in another (Three Tracts relative to the Spanish and Portuguese Affairs, London, 1821), he refuted the idea of the necessity of a house of peers in Spain, as well as Mon

59

tesquieu's proposition, that judicial forms are the defence of innocence. His latest work is the Art of Packing (London, 1821); that is, of arranging juries so as to obtain any verdict desired. His previous work, Essai sur la Tactique des Assemblées législatives, edited, from the author's papers, by Etienne Dumont (Geneva, 1815), and translated into German, contains many useful observations. His Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (London, 1823, 2 vols.) treats of the principal objects of government in a profound and comprehensive manner. Zanobelli has translated Bentham's Theory of Legal Evidence into Italian (Bergamo, 1824, 2 vols.). Among the earlier works of B. was his Defence of Usury, showing the Impolicy of the present legal Restraints on the Terms of pecuniary Bargains (1787).

BENTIVOGLIO, Cornelio; cardinal and poet, born at Ferrara, 1668, of a family that held the highest offices in the former republic of Bologna. He early distinguished himself by his progress in the fine arts, literature, philosophy, theology and jurisprudence. While at Ferrara, he patronised the literary institutions there. Pope Clement XI made him his domestic prelate and secretary to the apostolic chamber, and sent him, in 1712, as nuncio to Paris, where, during the last years of the reign of Louis XIV, he acted an important part in the affair of the bull Unigenitus. The duke of Orleans, regent after the death of Louis, was not favorably disposed towards him; the pope, therefore, transferred him to Ferrara, and, in 1719, bestowed on him the hat of a cardinal, and employed him at first in Rome, near his own person, then as legate a latere in Romagna, &c. B. died in Rome, 1732. Poetry had occupied the leisure hours of the learned cardinal. Some sonnets composed by him are to be found in Gobbi's collection, vol. 3, and in other collections of his time. Under the name of Selvaggio Porpora, he translated the Thebais of Statius into Italian. He delivered several addresses before societies for the promotion of the fine arts. His discourse in defence of the utility and moral influence of painting, sculpture and architecture, delivered in the academy of design, at Rome, 1707, was reprinted by the academy of the Arcadians, in the 2d vol. of the Prose degli Arcadi.

BENTIVOGLIO, Guy or Guido, celebrated as a cardinal and a historian, was born at Ferrara, in 1579. He studied at Padua with great reputation, and afterwards, fix