conduct. Despised by all parties, but consoled if she could deceive them; taking arms only to treat, and never treating without preparing the materials for a new civil war, she brought Charles IX, when he became of age, into a situation in which he must either make the royal authority subordinate to a powerful party, or cause part of his subjects to be massacred, in the hope, at best a doubtful one, of subduing faction. The massacre of St. Bartholomew (see Bartholomew, massacre of) was her work. She induced the king to practise a dissimulation foreign to his character; and, as often as he evinced a disposition to free himself from a dependence of which he was ashamed, she knew how to prevent him, by the fear and jealousy which she excited in him by favoring his brother Henry. After the death of Charles IX, Catharine became again regent of the kingdom, till the return of Henry III, then king of Poland. She contributed to the many misfortunes of his reign, by the measures which she had adopted previously to its commencement, and by the intrigues in which she was uninterruptedly engaged. At her death, in 1589, France was in a state of complete dismemberment. The religious contests were, in reality, very indifferent to her. The consequences she was not able to conceive. She was ready to risk life for the gratification of her ambition. She was equally artful in uniting her adherents, and in promoting dissension ámong her adversaries. She was extravagant to folly, and was unable to limit her expenses. To those who directed her attention to the prodigal expenditure of the public treasure, she used to say, "One must live." Her example contributed greatly to promote the corruption of morals which prevailed in her time. Her manners, however, were elegant, and she took a lively interest in the sciences and arts. She caused valuable manuscripts to be brought from Greece and Italy, and the Tuileries and the Hotel de Soissons to be built. In the provinces, also, several castles were erected by her order, distinguished for the beauty of their architecture, in an age when the principles of the art were still unknown in France. She had two daughters, Elizabeth, married to Philip II of Spain in 1559, and Margaretta (q. v.) of Valois, married to Henry of Navarre, afterwards Henry IV.

CATHARINE OF BRAGANZA, wife of Charles II, king of England, and daughter of John IV, king of Portugal, was born in 1638. In 1661, she married

Charles II, in whose court she long endured all the neglect and mortification his dissolute conduct was calculated to inflict upon her. This endurance was also rendered greater by her proving unfruitful; but she supported herself with great equanimity, and, after the death of Charles, received much attention and respect. In 1693, she returned to Portugal, where, in 1704, she was made regent by her brother, don Pedro, whose increasing infirmities rendered retirement necessary. In this situation, Catharine showed considerable abilities, carrying on the war against Spain with great firmness and success. She died in 1705, aged 67.

CATHARINE I, empress of Russia. The early history of this remarkable woman is uncertain. According to some accounts, she was the daughter of a Catholic peasant in Lithuania, by name Samuel, for he had (as is frequently the case there) no family name. It is said that she was born in 1686, named Martha, and placed, by her poor parents, in the service of a Lutheran clergyman, named Daut, at Roop, in the circle of Riga, where she imbibed the principles of the Protestant religion. She then removed to Marienburg, a small village in the circle of Wenden, and entered the service of a clergyman named Glück, who caused her to be instructed in the Lutheran religion. Here she was married to a Swedish dragoon. But, a few days after, he was obliged to repair to the field, and the Russians, within a short period, took Marienburg, in 1702. Martha fell into the hands of general Scheremetjeff, who relinquished her to prince Menzikoff. While in his possession, she was seen by Peter the Great, who made her his mistress. She became a proselyte to the Greek church, and assumed the name of Catharine Alexiewna. In 1708 and 1709, she bore the emperor the princesses Anna and Elizabeth, the first of whom became the duchess of Holstein by marriage, and mother of Peter III. The second became empress of Russia. In 1713, the emperor publicly acknowledged her his wife. She was subsequently proclaimed empress, and crowned in Moscow. Besides the daughters above-named, she bore the emperor five more children, all of whom died early. The princesses Anna and Elizabeth were declared legitimate. By her kindness, by her perseverance, and, above all, by her intelligence, she gained possession of the heart of the emperor. When Peter, with his army, seemed irreparably lost on the Pruth, in 1711, Catharine, in connexion with Ostermann and Schaffi

roff, endeavored to win over the grand vizier; and, having succeeded, by bribing his confidant with her jewels, she disclosed her plan to the emperor, who gave it his approbation, and was soon relieved. She afterwards received many proofs of the gratitude of her husband. (Her coronation, as empress, in Moscow, which some place in 1718, took place, according to Weber and Bergholz, in 1724.) Peter even deemed her worthy of being his successor. But, in the latter part of 1724, she fell under his displeasure. Her chamberlain Mons, with whom Peter had found her tête à tète, was beheaded, on pretence that he had been bribed by the enemies of Russia; and she was obliged to view the head of Mons nailed to a gibbet. This, however, is only an anecdote, and the affair of Mons remains a mystery. Menzikoff, who had always manifested much attachment to her, had now been in disgrace for some time, and Peter had very frequent attacks of bodily pain, which were interrupted by dreadful explosions of rage. These circumstances made Catharine's situation critical, and her anticipations of the future must have been the more melancholy, as the emperor had uttered some threats of a change in the succession to her disadvantage. To prevent such an event, she applied to Menzikoff; and, by the prudence of Jaguschinski, who then enjoyed the favor of Peter, and whom she gained over, a reconciliation was effected with the emperor. The empress and the favorite were laboring to confirm their improving prospects, when Peter the Great died, Jan. 28, 1725. Catharine, Menzikoff and Jaguschinski considered it necessary to keep the death of the emperor secret, until, by judicious arrangements, they had secured the succession of the throne to the empress. Theophanes, archbishop of Plescow, swore before the people and troops, that Peter, on his death-bed, had declared Catharine alone worthy to succeed him in the government. She was then proclaimed empress and autocrat of all the Russias, and the oath of allegiance to her was taken anew. At first, the cabinet pursued the plans of Peter, and, under Menzikoff's management, the administration was conducted with considerable ability. But the pernicious influence of favorites was soon felt, and great errors crept into the administration. Catharine died suddenly, on the 17th of May, 1727, in the 42d year of her age. Her death was probably hastened by excess in the use of Tokay wine and ardent spirits.

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CATHARINE II, empress of Russia, a woman of remarkable ability, was born at Stettin, April 25, 1729, where her father, Christian Augustus, prince of AnhaltZerbst, and Prussian field-marshal, was governor. Her name was originally Sophia Augusta. The empress Elizabeth, at the instigation of Frederic II, chose her for the wife of Peter, her nephew, whom she appointed her successor. The young princess accompanied her mother to Russia, where she joined the Greek church, and adopted the name of Catharine Alexiewna, given to her by the empress. The marriage was celebrated Sept. 1,1745. It was not a happy one, but Catharine found recreation in the improvement of her mind. She was endowed with uncommon strength of character; but the ardor of her temperament, and the ill-treatment of her husband, led her into errors which had the most injurious influence on her whole political life. Amongst the friends of her husband, count Soltikoff was distinguished for talent and the graces of his person. He attracted the attention of Catharine, and an intimate connexion between them was the consequence. When Soltikoff, who was employed in foreign embassies, grew indifferent to Catharine, a young Pole, Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski, celebrated both for his good and ill fortune, gained the affections of the grand princess. Their intimacy was known to the empress, but did not appear to displease her; and it was at her recommendation that Augustus III appointed Poniatowski his ambassador at the court of St. Petersburg. This connexion created alarm at Paris. France, at that time at war with England, had formed a secret treaty with Austria, and drawn Russia into the same. Poniatowski was known to be a warm adherent of England, and it was feared that, through his influence on the princess, he might prejudice Elizabeth against France; and Louis XV endeavored to induce the king of Poland to recall him. In the year 1761, Elizabeth died, and Peter III ascended the throne. The emperor now became still more alienated from his wife. Peter lived in the greatest dissipation, and on such intimate terms with a lady of the court, named Elizabeth Woronzoff, that it was generally thought that he would repudiate Catharine, and marry his mistress. The empress, therefore, was obliged to take measures for her personal security. At the same time, Peter grew continually more and more unpopular with his subjects, owing to his blind predilection for the Prussian military

discipline, his politics, and the faults of his character. This led to a conspiracy, at the head of which were the hetman count Rasumowski, count Panin, the enterprising princess Daschkoff, and a young officer of the guards, Gregory Orloff, who, since Poniatowski's departure, had taken his place in Catharine's affections. All those who were dissatisfied, or who expected to gain by a change, joined this conspiracy. Panin and the greater part of the conspirators were actuated only by the desire to place the minor prince, Paul, on the throne, under the guardianship of the empress, and a council of the empire. But this plan was changed through the influence of the Orloffs. The guards were the first to swear allegiance to the empress, on her presenting herself to them at Peterhoff, on the morning of July 9, 1762; and Alexei Orloff prevailed on Teplow, who was afterwards appointed senator, to read, at the Kazan church, instead of the proclamation of the conspirators in favor of the young prince, one announcing the elevation of Catharine to the throne. Peter died, a few days after, in prison. The accusation against Catharine, of having contributed to hasten this event, is without foundation. The young, ambitious princess, neglected by her husband, whom she did not respect, remained passive on the occasion, yielded to circumstances, which were, it is true, propitious to her, and consoled herself for an event which she could not remedy. She knew how to gain the affections of the people by flattering their vanity; showed great respect for their religion; caused herself to be crowned at Moscow with great pomp; devoted herself to the promotion of agriculture and commerce, and the creation of a naval force; improved the laws, and showed the greatest activity in the administration of the internal as well as the external affairs of Russia. A year after her ascension to the throne, she forced the Courlanders to displace their new duke, Charles of Saxony, and to recall Biren, who was extremely odious to the nobles. After the death of Augustus III, king of Poland, she was the means of Stanislaus Poniatowski's being crowned at Warsaw. But, whilst she was forcing this king on the Poles, the number of the malcontents in her own empire increased, and several attempts against her life were made at St. Petersburg and Moscow. The young Ivan (q. v.) was the person to whom the hopes of the conspirators were directed; but his sudden death, at the fortress of

Schlüsselburg, overthrew the plans of the disaffected. After this, the court of the empress was only disturbed, from time to time, by intrigues, in which gallantry and politics went hand in hand, and which had no other object than to replace one favorite by another. In the midst of pleasure and dissipation, Catharine did not neglect the improvement of the laws. Deputies from all the provinces met at Moscow. The empress had herself prepared instructions for their conduct, which were read at the first session; but it was impossible for so many different nations to understand each other, or to be subject to the same laws. In the first sessions, the emancipation of the peasants was proposed. This alone would have been sufficient to cause a bloody revolution. Catharine, who presided at the debates, and received from the assembly the title of mother of the country, soon dismissed the discordant legislators. About this time, France formed a party in Poland against Russia; but these attempts only served to accelerate Catharine's plans. The war to which the Porte was instigated had the same result. The Turks were beaten. The Russian flag was victorious on the Greek seas; and on the banks of the Neva, the plan was formed of reestablishing the republics of Sparta and Athens, as a check to the Ottoman power. The advancement of Austrian troops into Poland inspired Catharine with the desire to aggrandize herself in this quarter. She therefore entered into an agreement for the division of the country with the courts of Berlin and Vienna in 1772, by which the governments of Polotzk and Mohilow fell to her share, and she ensured to herself exclusive influence in Poland, by undertaking to guaranty the Polish constitution. At the same time, she abandoned all her conquests, with the exception of Azoph, Taganrog and Kinburn, in the peace with the Porte, concluded at Kainardschi in 1774, but secured to herself the free navigation of the Black sea, and stipulated for the independence of the Crimea. By this apparent independence, the Crimea became, in fact, dependent on Catharine. This peace was as opportune as it was advantageous to Russia; for, in the third year of the war, Moscow and several other cities were desolated by the plague; and, about the same time, an adventurer, named Pugatscheff, assuming the name of Peter III, had excited a revolt in several provinces of Eastern Russia. At this time, Potemkin exercised an unlimited influence on the empress.

In

1784, he succeeded in conquering the Crimea, to which he gave its ancient name of Tauris, and extended the confines of Russia to the Caucasus. Catharine, upon this, traversed the provinces which had revolted under Pugatscheff, and navigated the Wolga and Borysthenes, taking greater interest in the expedition, as it was connected with some danger. She was desirous, likewise, of seeing Tauris. Potemkin turned this journey, which took place in 1787, into a triumphal march. Throughout a distance of nearly 1000 leagues, nothing but feasts and spectacles of various kinds were to be seen. Palaces were raised on barren heaths, to be inhabited for a day. Villages and towns were built in the wildernesses, where, a short time before, the Tartars had fed their herds. An immense population appeared at every step-the picture of affluence and prosperity. A hundred different nations paid homage to their sovereign. Catharine saw, at a distance, towns and villages, of which only the outward walls existed. She was sur rounded by a multitude of people, who were conveyed on during the night, to afford her the same spectacle the following day. Two sovereigns visited her on her journey-the king of Poland, Stanislaus Augustus, and the emperor Joseph II. The latter renewed his promise, given at St. Petersburg, to assist her in her projects against the Turks. About this time, Prussia and England combined to instigate the Porte and Sweden to take up arins against Russia. The Turks were no more fortunate this time than before; and perhaps they would have been driven entirely out of Europe, had not Catharine been restrained by the interference of other states. (See Reichenbach Congress, 1790.) Peace was concluded at Jassy in 1792. Catharine kept Oczakow, and all the country between the Bug and the Dniester. Whilst Russia was occupied with the Turks, Gustavus III had commenced hostilities, and, at one time, threatened St. Peters-, burg. After a war of two years, peace was concluded at Werela, in 1790, leaving the possessions of both countries as they were before the commencement of hostilities. Thus all the wars undertaken against Russia had only tended to augment her political preponderance. Catharine's influence on Poland was equal to absolute dominion. When the republic, in 1791, wished to change its constitution, she took part with the opponents of the plan, gained the concurrence of Prussia, garrisoned Poland with her troops, and

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concluded a new treaty of partition with the cabinet of Berlin in 1792. (See Poland.) The insurrection, which broke out in Poland in 1794, could not save this unhappy country, which, after the storming of Praga, and the devastation of several of its provinces, was, at last, in 1795, entirely divided. Courland, too, was united with the Russian empire. A pension was given to the last duke of Courland, and the last king of Poland spent his pension at St. Petersburg. During these occurrences, Catharine could not take part in the war against France. She, however, broke off all connexion with the French republic, actively assisted the emigrants, and entered into an alliance with England against France. She likewise made war against Persia, and, as some historians assure us, entertained the project of destroying the power of the English in Bengal, when a fit of apoplexy put an end to her life, Nov. 9, 1796.-Catharine II has been equally censured and praised. With all the weakness of her sex, and with a love of pleasure carried to licentiousness, she combined the firmness and talent of a powerful sovereign. Two passions were predominant with her until her death, love and ambition. She was never without her favorite, who, by the manner in which she distinguished him, and by the valuable presents she gave him, was publicly designated as such. She never, however, lost sight of her dignity. She was distinguished for activity, working with her ministers, writing a philosophical letter to Voltaire, and signing an order to attack the Turks, or to occupy Poland, in the same breath. She favored distinguished authors, and was particularly partial to the French. At Paris, she had a literary agent (baron Grimın). She several times invited Voltaire to her court, proposed to D'Alembert to finish the Encyclopædia at St. Petersburg, and to undertake the education of the grand-duke. Diderot visited her at her request, and she often allowed him the privilege of familiar conversation with her. By these means, she gained the favor of the literati of Europe, who called her the greatest of rulers; and, in fact, she was not without claims to this title. She protected commerce, improved the laws, dug canals, founded towns, hospitals and colleges. Pallas and others travelled at her expense. She endeavored to put a stop to the abuses which had crept into the administration of the different departments of government; but she began without being able to finish. Civilization advanced but slowly in Russia under

her reign; and her anxiety to enlighten her subjects ceased when she began to entertain the idea that the French revolution had been brought about by the progress of civilization. Laws, colonies, schools, manufactures, hospitals, canals, towns, fortifications, every thing was cominenced, but frequently left unfinished for want of means. She issued no paper money. Several letters, and other compositions by her, in the French and Russian languages, have been published. A statue of Catharine, of white marble, in a sitting posture, was executed by professor Göthe, at Stockholm, in 1825. The manners of the Russian court, in her time, are set forth in the diary of Krapomisky (St. Petersburg, 1826). Krapomisky was her private secretary for 10 years. Among several histories of her life are Tooke's Life of Catharine II (3 vols.), and Castera's Histoire de Catharine II (3 vols.).

CATHARINE PArr, sixth and last wife of Henry VIII, was the eldest daughter of sir Thomas Parr of Kendal, and was, at an early age, distinguished for her learning and good sense. She was first married to Edward Burghe, and secondly to John Neville, lord Latimer, and, after his death, attracted the notice of Henry VIII, whose queen she became in 1543. Her zealous encouragement of the reformed religion excited the anger and jealousy of Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, the chancellor Wriothesley, and others of the Catholic faction, who conspired to ruin her with the king. Taking advantage of one of his moments of irritation, they accused her of heresy and treason, and prevailed upon the king to sign a warrant for her committal to the Tower. This being accidentally discovered to her, she repaired to the king, who purposely turned the conversation to religious subjects, and began to sound her opinions. Aware of his purpose, she humbly replied, "that on such topics she always, as became her sex and station, referred herself to the wisdom of his majesty, as he, under God, was her only supreme head and governor here on earth." "Not so, by St. Mary, Kate," replied Henry; "you are, as we take it, become a doctor, to instruct, and not to be instructed by us." Catharine judiciously replied, that she only objected in order to be benefited by his superior learning and knowledge. "Is it so, sweetheart?" said the king; "and tended your arguments to no worse end? Then are we perfect friends again." After the death of the king, she espoused the lord admiral sir Thomas Seymour, uncle to

Edward VI; but this connexion proved unhappy, and involved her in troubles and difficulties. She died in child-bed in 1548, not without suspicion of poison. She was a zealous promoter of the reformation. Among her papers, after her death, was found a composition, entitled Queen Catharine Parr's Lamentations of a Sinner, bewailing the Ignorance of her blind Life; a contrite meditation on the years she had passed in Catholic fasts and pilgrimages. It was published, with a preface, by the great lord Burleigh, in 1548. In her lifetime, she published a volune of "Prayers or Meditations, wherein the Mind is stirred patiently to suffer all Afflictions here, and to set at nought the vaine Prosperitie of this Worlde, and also to long for the everlasting Felicitee." Many of her letters have also been printed.

CATHARINE PAWLOWNA, queen of Würtemburg, grand-princess of Russia; born May 21, 1788; younger sister of the emperor Alexander, and widow of George, prince of Holstein-Oldenburg, whom she married in 1809, and thus got rid of a proposal of marriage made her by Napoleon. George died in Russia, December, 1812. Her two sons, by this marriage, born in 1810 and 1812, are still living. She was distinguished alike for beauty, talents and resolution, and exhibited the tenderest affection for her brother Alexander. After 1812, she was frequently his companion in the campaigns in Germany and France, as well as during his residence at London and Vienna, and evidently had an important influence on several of his measures. It is said that she effected, in 1814, the marriage of the prince of Orange with her younger sister. In 1813, William, crown-prince of Würtemburg, in Germany, formed an acquaintance with her, and, in 1814, saw her again in Paris. They were married Jan. 24, 1816, at Petersburg; and, after the death of his father, in October, 1816, he ascended with her the throne of Würtemburg.— She was a generous benefactor to her subjects in the famine of 1816. She formed the female associations existing throughout the country, and established an agricultural society. She labored to promote the education of her people, and founded valuable institutions for the poor (particularly a school for educating and employing poor children), a school for the females of the higher classes, and savings banks for the lower classes, after the example of the English savings banks. Indeed, she interfered, often arbitrarily, in the internal economy of the state, and