wise occupied, he devoted his nights to these labors. An astronomical work which he wrote procured him the acquaintance of Olbers (q. v.), who, from that time, became his adviser. In 1806, he joined Scröter at Lilienthal, with recornmendations from Olbers, and was employed for four years as inspector of the instruments belonging to the university of Göttingen. From thence he was invited to Königsberg, where he built, in 1812 13, the observatory, which is a monument of the scientific enterprise of the north of Germany, since it was erected when Prussia was almost exhausted by war, and Königsberg was situated on the great theatre, of Napoleon's operations against Russia. The observations, uninterruptedly continued at this observatory, are contained in 5 vols., folio. The observatory of Königsberg was, till 1819, provided with English instruments, when the ministry supplied it with the means of procuring new instruments, made by Reichenbach (q. v.), of the best workmanship. Besides these observations and separate treatises, B. published, in his work on the comet of 1807, a theory of the disturbances of these celestial bodies, and Fundamenta Astronomia pro an. 1755-a work in which he has reduced Bradley's observations, and given their results. He treats also of the various subjects connected with these observations, namely, the instruments used and the corrections to be made in them. For the present period, B. has endeavored, by his own observations and a strict criticism of methods and instruments, to attain the necessary certainty. Of his Astronomical Observations at the Observatory of Königsberg, the 10th No., from Jan. I to Dec. 31, 1824, appeared at Königsberg, 1826.

BETEL is the leaf of a climbing East Indian plant (piper-betel), which belongs to the same tribe as pepper, and, in shape and appearance, is not much unlike ivy, but is more tender, and full of juice. There is an almost incredible consumption of betel throughout India, and other parts of the East. The inhabitants chew it almost incessantly, and in such quantity that their lips become quite red, and their teeth black-a color greatly preferred by them to the whiteness which the Europeans so much affect. They carry it, in little white boxes, about their persons, and present it to each other, by way of compliment and civility, in the same manner as Europeans do snuff. This is done by the women as well as by the men; and it would be considered an offence, if those 8

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to whom it is offered should refuse to accept of and chew it. The leaves are sometimes used alone, but much more commonly when covered with a kind of lime made of sea-shell, and wrapped round slices of the areca nut, the fruit of the areca palm, of the size of a small egg, and resembling a nutmeg deprived of its husk.

BETHANIA, OF BETHANY; a village at the foot of mount Olivet, on the west side, about two miles east of Jerusalem, where Lazarus dwelt, and was raised from the dead, and where the ascension of Christ is related to have taken place. The house and grave of Lazarus and the house of Mary Magdalene are still shown to curious travellers. The name of B. was sometimes extended to the whole tract from the village itself to Bethphage.

BETHESDA; a pool in Judea, the name of which signifies house of mercy. In the five halls or porticos near it many patients lay waiting, according to the account of John (ch. v), for the moving of the waters, to bathe in it. According to the opinion of the Jews, an angel descended, at a certain time, into the pool, and troubled the water, and whoever first entered the water, after this agitation, was cured. This pool seems to have been composed of a red-colored mineral water, which received its healing power from the red earth at the bottom. If the healing fountain, after having been obstructed for a time, began to bubble up anew, and the patient made use of it before the_motion ceased, it healed his disease.-To lie at the pool of Bethesda, is used proverbially, in Germany, in speaking of the theological candidates who are waiting for a benefice.

BETHLEHEM; the birth-place of David and Christ; a village, formerly a town, in Palestine, a part of Syria, in the pachalic of Damascus, five miles from Jerusalem, at the foot of a hill covered with vines and olive-trees, which, however, is not the mount of Olives mentioned in the Bible. An aqueduct conveys water from the hill to the village. It has 300 houses, and 2400 Greek and Armenian inhabitants, who make wooden rosaries and crucifixes, inlaid with mother of pearl, for pilgrims; also excellent white wine. In a rich grotto, furnished with silver and crystal lamps, under the choir of the church of a convent in this village, a trough of marble is shown, which is said to be the manger in which Jesus was laid after his birth. There are three convents there, for Catholics, Greeks and Armenians. The greatest ornament of the place is the stately church erected by the

empress Helena over the place where Christ is said to have been born, and bearing her name. It is built in the form of a cross, and the top commands a fine view over the surrounding country. Several spots mentioned in the Bible are shown there.

BETHLEHEM. There are many places in the U. States with this name. One of the most important is the borough and post-town in Northampton county, Pennsylvania, on the Lehigh, 12 miles S. W. Easton, 54 N. N. W. Philadelphia. Population in 1810, 1436; in 1820, 1860. It is pleasantly situated, regularly laid out, built chiefly of stone, and inhabited wholly by Moravians, who have a bishop there. B. contains two academies, one for young ladies, and another for boys.

BETROTHMENT, in law; a mutual promise or compact between two parties, by which they bind themselves to marry. The word imports giving one's troth, i. e., true faith or promise. Betrothment amounts to the same with what is called, by civilians and canonists, sponsalia or espousals, sometimes desponsation, and, by the French, fiançailles. Betrothment is either solemn (made in the face of the church), or private (made before witnesses out of the church). According to the Roman law, betrothment ought to be made by a stipulation, i. e., a contract, in which one binds himself, by an answer to a question put to him, to the fulfilment of a contract. As betrothments are contracts, they are subject to the same rules as other contracts; for instance, that they are valid only between persons whose capacity to contract is recognised by law; and the use of fraud, violence or intimidation vitiates the contract. The consent of both parties, of course, is required. This may be expressed either verbally, or by writing, or by action. In Germany, the consent of the parents is always necessary, if the parties are under age, not yet sui juris. But if the parents withhold their consent unreasonably, the permission of the judge is allowed to sanction the contract. If the opinions of the parents are diverse, the law gives effect to that of the father. Some provincial laws require the consent of the relations, and the presence of witnesses. Betrothments contracted thus, according to law, are called sponsalia publica; others are called sponsalia clandestina. The latter are, in some places, utterly invalid; in others, only punishable. By the common German law, however, they are valid in every case in which consummation or consecration

by the priest has taken place. The parents, in these cases, are not allowed to apply for a dissolution of the contract, nor can they refuse their consent, except for highly important reasons. Public betrothment induces the obligation to marry. In case of refusal to complete the contract by marriage, the injured party is allowed an action at law to compel its performance; but, since unhappy marriages are among the greatest misfortunes, the means of compulsion applied by the law are never great, amounting only to a small fine, or a short imprisonment. If circumstances take place which, if happening before the betrothment, would have necessarily prevented it, the party affected by them is allowed to recede from the engagement, and the modern laws allow only an action for damages. In Germany, betrothment generally takes place in a small company of relations and friends. In Russia, it was once binding and indissoluble, like marriage, but is now a mere form accompanying the marriage ceremony.

BETTERMENT is a term used, in some of the U. States, to signify the improvements made on lands by the occupant, in building, fencing, draining, &c.; and the statutes of some of the U. States provide, that where a purchaser comes into possession under what he supposes to be a good title, and the land is afterwards recovered against him by virtue of a better title, in case he or those under whom he claims have been in possession of it a certain number of years, he shall be entitled to claim against the owner who so recovers possession of the land, the value of the improvements or betterments. This is a very equitable provision of the laws in states where, as in many parts of the U. States, titles are not fully established and confirmed by a long period of possession, and where, in newly-settled territories, the improvements may, in a few years, amount to more than the original value of the land.

BETTERTON, Thomas, a celebrated actor in the reign of Charles II, was born in Westminster, in 1635, and excelled in Shakspeare's characters of Hamlet, Othello, Brutus and Hotspur. In 1635, he opened a new play-house in Lincoln'sinn-fields, but did not succeed. He died in 1710, and was buried in Westminster abbey. He wrote the Woman made a Justice, a comedy; the Amorous Widow, or the Wanton Wife; Diocletian, a dramatic opera, &c. The Unjust_Judge, or Appius and Virginia, a tragedy, was

written originally by Mr. John Webster, and altered by B.

BETTINELLI, Saverio, an Italian author, born at Mantua, in 1718, studied there and at Bologna, under the Jesuits; entered, in 1736, the novitiate of this order, and aught, from 1739 to 44, belles-lettres at Brescia, where he made himself known by some poems composed for the use of schools. In Bologna, where he studied theology, he continued to cultivate his poetical talents, and wrote for the theatre of the college his tragedy of Jonathan. In 1751, he was intrusted with the direction of the college of nobles at Parma. After having remained there eight years, he travelled in France and Germany, and returned to Verona, where he remained till 1767, engaged in preaching and instruction. After the suppression of the Jesuits, in 1773, he returned to his native city, where he resumed his literary labors with renewed zeal. He published several works, among which some were intended for ladies; as, his Correspondence between two Ladies, his Letters to Lesbia on Epigrams, and likewise his Twenty-four Dialogues on Love. He began, in 1799, a complete edition of his works (Venice, 1801, 12 vols. 12mo.) He preserved the cheerfulness and serenity of his spirit to the age of 90 years, and died in 1808, with the composure of a pnilosopher, and the devotion of a Christian. Besides his works already mentioned, we cite his Dell' Entusiasmo delle belle Arti, Risorgimento negli Studj, nelle Arti e ne' Costumi dopo il Mille (3 vols.), a superficial work, which is, however, not destitute of new and just views. The Lettere dieci di Virgilio agli Arcadi attracted great attention. The ideas expressed in this work of the two great names of Italian poetry, particularly of Dante, involved him in many contests. His Poesie (3 vols.) contain 7 poemetti, 16 letters in blank verse, sonnets, canzoni, &e. Although this collection does not show any great poetical power, yet it is always elegant and ingenious. It is preceded by a treatise on Italian poetry.

BEY, among the Turks, signifies a governor of a town, seaport or small district. The Turks write the word beg. (q. v.) (See also Beglerbeg.)

BEZA (properly, de Beze), Theodore; next to Calvin, the most distinguished for genius and influence among the preachers of the Calvinistic church in the 16th century. Born of a noble family at Vezelay, in Burgundy, June 24, 1519; educated in Orleans,

under Melchior Volinar, a German philologer devoted to the reformation; and early familiar with the ancient classical literature, he became known, at the age of 20 years, as a Latin poet, by his petulant and witty Juvenilia (a collection of poems of which he was afterwards ashamed). In 1539, he was made a licentiate of law, and, in the same year, invited by his family to Paris. He received from his uncle the reversion of his valuable abbey Froidmond, and lived on the income of two benefices and the property which he had inherited from a brother. His habits, at this time, were dissipated. His handsome figure, his talents, and his connexion with the most distinguished families, opened to him the most splendid prospects. But a clandestine marriage, in 1543, recalled him from his excesses, and a dangerous illness confirmed the intention, which he had formed at Orleans, of devoting himself to the service of the reformed church; so that, after his recovery, he forsook all the advantages of his situation in Paris, and repaired, with his wife, to Geneva, in 1547. Soon after, he accepted a professorship of the Greek language at Lausanne. During the 10 years of his continuance in this office, he wrote a tragi-comic drama, in French,-the Sacrifice of Abraham,— which was received with much approbation; delivered lectures (which were numerously attended) on the Epistle to the Romans and the Epistles of Peter (which served as the basis of his Latin translation of the New Testament, of which he afterwards published several editions, always with improvements); finished Marot's translation of the Psalms in French verse; and obtained to such a degree the confidence of the Swiss Calvinists, that he was sent, in 1558, on an embassy to the Protestant princes of Germany, to obtain their intercession at the French court for the release of the Huguenots imprisoned in Paris. In the following year, he went to Geneva as a preacher, and, soon after, became a professor of theology, and the most active assistant of Calvin, to whom he had already recommended himself by several works (on the punishment of heretics by the magistrate, the vindication of the burning of Servetus, and some violent controversial writings on the doctrine of predestination and the communion, against Castalio, Westphal and Hesshuss). His talents for negotiation were now often put in requisition by the Calvinists. He was sent to the court of Anthony, king of Navarre, at Nerac, to obtain the toleration of the French Hu

guenots, and, at his desire, he appeared, 1561, at the religious conference at Poissy, where he spoke in behalf of his party with a boldness, presence of mind and energy, which gained him the esteem of the French court. He often preached in Paris before the queen of Navarre and the prince of Condé; also in the suburbs. At the conference of St. Germain, in 1562, he spoke strongly against the worship of images, and, after the commencement of the civil war, accompanied the prince of Condé as chaplain, and, on the capture of the prince, joined the admiral Coligny. After the restoration of peace, he returned to Geneva, in 1563, where, besides discharging the duties of his offices, he continued to engage in theological controversies in support of the Calvinists; and, after Calvin's death, in 1564, became his successor, and was considered the first theologian of this church. He presided in the synods of the French Calvinists at La Rochelle (1571) and at Nismes (1572), where he opposed Morel's proposal for the alteration of clerical discipline; was sent by Condé (1574) to the court of the elector palatine; and, at the religious conference at Montpellier (1586), opposed the theologians of Würtemberg, particularly James Andreas. At the age of 69 years, he married his second wife (1588), and still continued to repel, with the power of truth and wit, the attacks and calumnies which his enemies, apostatized Calvinists (such as Volsec), Lutherans, and particularly the Jesuits, heaped upon him. They reported, in 1597, that he had died, and returned before his death to the Catholic faith. B., now 78 years old, met his assailants in a poem full of youthful enthusiasm, and resisted, in the same year, the attempts of St. Francis de Sales to convert him, and the alluring offers of the pope. In 1600, he visited Henry IV, in the territory of Geneva, who presented him with 500 ducats. After having enjoyed excellent health during almost his whole life, he died, Oct. 13, 1605, of old age. By a rigorous adherence to the principles of Calvin, in whose spirit he presided over the church of Geneva, he had become the chief of his party, and enjoyed for 40 years the reputation of a patriarch, without whose approbation no important step was taken. In order to preserve the unity and permanency of his church, he sacrificed his own opinions to the established dogmas of Calvin, and rendered the most important services by his various erudition, his constant zeal, his active spirit, his brilliant eloquence,

and even by the impression of his personal appearance, which age made still more striking. He defended his doctrines with ability and enthusiasm, and often with merciless severity and obstinacy. Among his many works, his exegetic writings, and an able and correct History of Calvinism in France, from 1521 to 63, which is ascribed to him, are still much esteemed. His correspondence with Calvin is to be found in the ducal library at Gotha. A catalogue of his works is given by Anthony la Faye, who has written an account of his life.

BEZANT; round, flat pieces of pure gold, without any impression, supposed to have been the current coin of Byzantium. This coin was probably introduced into coat-armor by the crusaders. Doctor Henry, in his History of England, estimates its value at 9s. 44d. sterling. The gold offered by the king of England on the altar, at the feast of the Epiphany and the Purification, is called bezant.

BEZOAR (Persian, pazar, a goat, or pazachar, against poison); a concretion or calculus, of an orbicular or oval form, met with in the bodies of various animals. These substances are found in the stomach, gall-bladder, salivary ducts, and pineal gland, but especially in the intestines of certain animals of the order ruminantia. They were formerly celebrated for their supposed medicinal virtues, and distinguished by the name of the countries from which they came, or the animals in which they were found. They were considered as highly alexipharmic; so much so, that other medicines, supposed to possess the same virtues, obtained the name of bezoardics. So efficacious were these once thought, that they were eagerly bought for 10 times their weight in gold. Besides being taken internally, they were worn around the neck, as preservatives from contagion. For this purpose, it is said, that in Portugal it was customary to hire them at the price of about 10 shillings per day. On analysis, these substances are found to contain, for the most part, bile and resin. It is almost needless to add, that the accounts of their extraordinary virtues must now be considered as totally fabulous.-A strange origin was assigned to the bezoar by some of the old naturalists. The Oriental stags, when oppressed with age and infirmity, were said to feed upon serpents, which restored their youthful vigor. To counteract the poison which by this means was absorbed into their system, they plunged into some running stream, leav