it was to interrogate the parties. In a narrower sense, an officer who overlooks accounts. The auditeur du châtelet, in France, was a member of that court of justice for the city of Paris. (See Chatelet.) This court decided in causes of small importance (where the amount in dispute did not exceed 50 francs.) In the 11 high offices of accounts (chambres des comptes) of France, the members were divided into conseillers-maîtres and conseillers-auditeurs, as the German colleges (departments of government) are into counsellors and assistants. A similar division in the courts of justice was introduced by Napoleon, viz., that of conseilleurs and juge-auditeurs, which distinction still exists. In England, this term is applied to those who examine accounts. The chief accountant's office is called office for auditing the public accounts. The members of the Spanish courts of justice are generally called oydores. This appellation also obtains among the papal officers. The 12 counsellors of the renowned rota Romana (q. v.) are called auditores sacri palatii apostolici, or auditores rota. In the papal college of finance, the camera apostolica, at the head of which is the cardinale camerlingo, there is an auditor cameræ, who exercises the power of the college in causes of minor importance.

AUERBACH, Henry; born in 1482, at a place of the same name in Bavaria; the builder of the Auerbach-court and cellar at Leipsic, mentioned in Göthe's Faust. His real name was Stromer, but, according to the fashion of his time, he took the name of the place where he was born. The building was erected in 1530, and tradition reports that, five years after, doctor Faust was seen riding out of it on a barrel of wine. This tale Göthe has made use of in his famous poem. The building was known also at the Leipsic fairs as one of the most frequented places for the exhibition of merchandise.

AUERSTEDT, battle at, Oct. 14, 1806. (See Jena.)

AUGEAN CODEX (Codex Augiensis); a Greek and Latin MS. of the Epistles of St. Paul, supposed by Michaelis to have been written in the ninth century, and so called from Augia Major, the name of a monastery at Rheinau, to which it be longed. After passing through several hands, it came, in 1718, to doctor Bentley, who purchased it for 250 Dutch florins, and it is now in the library of Trinity college, Cambridge. This MS. (noted F. in the second part of Wetstein's New Test.) is written in uncial letters, and without

accents; not continua serie, as is common with the more ancient copies, but with intervals between the words, and a dot at the end of each. The Greek text is written in capitals, the Latin in Anglo-Saxon letters; whence it is tolerably clear that it must have been written in the west of Europe, where that formation of the Latin letters, usually called Anglo-Saxon, was in general use between the 7th and 12th centuries. The manuscript is defective from the beginning to Romans iii. 8, and the Epistle to the Hebrews is only found in the Latin version.

AUGEAS, in fabulous history; a king of Elis, famed for his stable, which contained 3000 oxen, and had not been cleaned for 30 years. Hercules was desired to clear away the filth in one day, and A. promised, if he performed it, to give him a tenth part of the cattle. This task Hercules is said to have executed by turning the river Alpheus, or, as some say, the Peneus, through the stable, which immediately carried away the dung and filth. A. not only refused to perform his engagement, pretending that Hercules had used artifice, and experienced no labor or trouble, but banished his own son, Phyleus, from his kingdom, for supporting the claims of the hero. Upon this, a war commenced, and Hercules conquered Elis, put A. to death, and gave his kingdom to Phyleus. A. has been called the son of Sol, because Elis signifies the sun. After his death, he received the honors usually paid to heroes.

AUGER, Athanase, born at Paris, Dec. 12, 1734, a great linguist, was a clergyman, and professor of rhetoric in the college of St. Rouen. The bishop de Noé made him his chief vicar, and called him, in jest, his grand vicaire in partibus Atheniensium, on account of the zeal with which the abbé pursued the study of Grecian antiquities. Learning proved its worth in his character and life. He lived in a simple style in the midst of Paris, retired, and free from anxiety, or wish to attain a higher station. He divided a moderate income with his needy family. It was said of him that he had never spoken ill of any one, and no one had spoken ill of him. As a member of the academy of inscriptions, he remained true to his principles of honest candor, and was no less beloved than respected by the whole society. The breaking out of the revolution aroused the sympathies of a man who lived, by his daily studies, in Greece and Rome. He hoped for the abolition of crying abuses, and for the

introduction of true freedom. This expectation appears in several of his writings. He died before the occurrence of any events which could have shaken his faith, Feb. 7, 1792. His writings, partly translations from the ancient languages, and partly political, were published from his papers, at Paris, in 30 vols. Among his political works, the most distinguished are Projet d'Education publique précédé de quelques Reflexions sur l'Assemblée Nationale, 1789; and De la Constitution des Romains sous les Rois et au Temps de la République, 1792, the product of 30 years' labor, which first appeared after his death, with the rest of his posthumous works.

AUGEREAU, Pierre François Charles, duke of Castiglione, marshal of France; son of a fruit merchant; born at Paris, 1757; served as a carabinier in the French army; went from thence into the Neapolitan service, established himself at Naples, in 1787, as a fencing-master, and was banished thence, in 1792, with the rest of his countrymen. He served, afterwards, as a volunteer in the army of Italy, in which his talents and courage soon gained him promotion. He distinguished himself, in 1794, as general of brigade in the army of the Pyrenees, and, in 1796, as general of division in the army of Italy. He took the pass of Millesimo; made himself master, April 16, of the intrenched camp of the Piedmontese at Ceva, afterwards of that at Casale; threw himself on the bridge of Lodi, and carried it with the enemy's intrenchments. June 16, he passed the Po, and made prisoners the papal troops, together with the cardinal legate and the general's staff. Aug. 1, he came to the assistance of Masséna; maintained, during a whole day, a most obstinate struggle against a superior number of troops, and took the village of Castiglione, from which he derived his ducal title. Aug. 25, he passed over the Adige, and drove back the enemy as far as Roveredo. In the battle of Arcole, when the French columns wavered, A. seized a standard, rushed upon the enemy, and gained the victory. The directory bestowed this standard on him Jan. 27, 1797. Aug. 9, he was named commander of the 17th military division (division of Paris), in place of general Hatry. He was the instrument of the violent proceedings of the 18th of Fructidor, and was saluted, by the decimated legislative body, as the savior of his country. In 1799, he was chosen a member of the council of five hundred, and, therefore, resigned his command. He then obtained from the consul, Bon

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aparte, the command of the army in Holland. He led the French and Batavian army on the Lower Rhine to the support of Moreau, passed the river at Frankfort, and fought with the imperial general, with various success, until the battle of Hohenlinden ended the campaign. In October of 1801, being superseded by general Victor, he remained without employment till 1803, when he was appointed to lead the army, collected at Bayonne, against Portugal. When this enterprise failed, he went back to Paris, and, May 19, 1804, was named marshal of the empire, and grand officer of the legion of honor. In July of this year, the king of Spain sent him the order of Charles III. At the end of 1805, he was at the head of a corps of the great army in Germany, formed of troops collected under his command at Brest. He contributed to the successes which gave birth to the peace of Presburg, and, in March 1806, had possession of Wetzlar and the country around, until, in the autumn of this year, a new war called him to Prussia. The wounds which he received in the battle of Eylau (q. v.) compelled him to return to France. Early in 1811, Napoleon gave him the command of a corps in the army of Spain. Afterwards he returned from thence, and remained without any employment until July, 1813, when he led the army in Bavaria against Saxony, where he took part in the battle of Leipsic. At the entrance of the allies into France, his duty was to cover Lyons. Louis XVIII named him a peer. After the fall of Napoleon, A. used reproachful language respecting him in a proclamation to his army. Napoleon, therefore, on his landing in 1815, declared him a traitor. A., however, expressed himself in his favor, but took no active part in the new order of things. After the return of the king, he took his place again in the chamber of peers, sat among Ney's judges, was for a while unoccupied, and died, June 11, 1816, at his estate La Houssaye, of the dropsy.

AUGIAS. (See Augeas.)

AUGITE (pyroxene); the name of a species in mineralogy, interesting on account of its wide distribution and the numerous varieties of form and color under which it appears. When crystallized, it assumes the form of short, slightly rhombic prisms, with their lateral edges replaced, and terminated at one or both extremities by numerous planes; and, when massive, is generally capable of mechan ical division, in lines parallel to the sides

were called auguries. Public auguries were, 1, appearances in the heavens, as thunder and lightning. The augur remarked the place where the flash of lightning originated, and where it disappeared. He stood on an elevated place (arx, templum), where he had a full view of all around him. After the sacrifices had been made, and solemn prayers offered, he took his station, his face towards the east, his head covered, and pointing with his staff (lituus) to that portion of the heavens within the limits of which he proposed to make his observations. On the left were the propitious, on the right the unpropitious omens. 2. The cries and the flight of birds. Predictions founded on the observation of birds were properly called auspices, and were very common even among the Greeks, who took them from the Chaldeans. They afterwards became so important, that, among the Romans, nothing of consequence in peace or in war was undertaken without consulting birds, whose continual flight was supposed to give them universal knowledge. They were propitious or unpropitious, either from their species or from the circumstances in which they appeared. The birds of a prophetic character were divided into two principal classes-those whose flight and those whose cry was indicative of future events. In the latter class were included the raven, the crow, the night-owl, the cock; in the former were the eagle, the crow, the raven, the kite and the vulture. The two last were always unpropitious; the eagle, on the contrary, was propitious when he flew from left to right; the crow and the raven were propitious on the left and unpropitious on the right. 3. The willingness or unwillingness of chickens to eat was also ominous. The former was interpreted as a good omen, the latter as a bad one. Chickens were made use of particularly in war; therefore a pontifex, some augurs and haruspices (see Aruspex), together with a pullarius with a hen-coop, were attached to the army. Besides these three principal classes, certain omens were drawn from quadrupeds; e. g., if a beast crossed one's path, or was seen in an unusual place, and from many occurrences more or less uncommon, e. g., sudden melancholy, sneezing, spilling the salt on the table, &c. The augurs explained such signs, and taught how the gods were to be appeased. The right of taking the auspices, that is, the right to inquire of the gods, by certain signs, how the war would terminate, belonged only

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to the commander-in-chief. The inferior officers fought only under his auspices; that is, the declaration which he issued was binding upon them, and the fortunate or the unfortunate issue of the war was attributed to him alone.

AUGUST; the name of the eighth month from January, inclusive, and the sixth of the Roman year, which began with March. It was called Sextilis, till the emperor Augustus, in consideration of the many instances of good fortune which had happened to him in this month, affixed to it his own name.

AUGUSTA; the name of a very great number of ancient places; as, Augusta Treverorum, now Treves; Augusta Ausciorum, now Auch; Augusta Taurinorum, now Turin; Augusta Suessonum, now Soissons, &c. Augusta also is the name of many modern places and rivers in South America.

AUGUSTA ; a post-town of Maine, on the river Kennebec, 56 miles N. N. E. Portland, 168 N. E. Boston; population, in 1810, 1805; in 1820, 2457. It is a pleasant and flourishing town, and has, by an act of the state legislature, been constituted the seat of the state government after January 1, 1832. Here is an elegant bridge across the Kennebec, consisting of two arches, each 180 feet long. The river is navigable to A. for vessels of 100 tons.

AUGUSTA; a city of Georgia, opposite to Hamburg, in South Carolina, with which it is connected by a bridge; 87 miles E. N. E. Milledgeville, 123 N. N. W. Savannah, 138 W. N. W. Charleston; lon. 80° 46 W.; lat. 33° 33′ N; population, in 1810, 2476; and in 1827, about 5000. It is situated on an elevated plain. The streets are wide, intersecting each other at right angles, and are ornamented with trees. The houses are mostly of brick, and many of them are spacious and elegant. Among the public buildings are a city-hall, an academy, a court-house, a theatre, an hospital, two markets and six houses of public worship. A. is favorably situated for trade, and has a very flourishing commerce. More than 100,000 bags of cotton are annually deposited here, and hence conveyed down the river to Savannah and Charleston, for northern and European markets.

AUGUSTIN, OF AUSTIN, Saint, called the apostle of the English, flourished at the close of the sixth century. He was sent, with 40 monks, by Gregory, to introduce Christianity into the Saxon kingdoms. He was kindly received by Ethelbert, king of Kent, whom he soon converted;

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and such was his success with his subjects, that he is said to have baptized 10,000 in one day. This success may be attributed to his reputation of miraculous power in the restoration of sight and life, more probably than to any other cause. He has the merit of allowing no coercive measures to be used in the propagation of the gospel. Elated by the rapid progress he had made, A. became ambitious of possessing the supreme authority over the English churches as archbishop of Canterbury, and received the archiepiscopal pall from the pope, with instructions to establish 12 sees in his province. The British bishops in Wales, successors of the British converts of the second century, had never submitted to the jurisdiction of the church of Rome, and A. endeavored to persuade them to unite with the new English church. They asserted their independence, and 1200 Welsh monks were soon after put to the sword, as is thought, at the instigation of A. He died in 604, or 608, or 614, and his relics have been carefully preserved in the cathedral of Canterbury.

AUGUSTINE, Saint, one of the most renowned fathers of the Christian church, born at Tagaste, a small city in Africa, Nov. 13, 354, during the reign of the emperor Constantine, has related his life in the work to which he gave the title of Confessions. His parents sent him to Carthage to complete his education, but he disappointed their expectations by his neglect of serious study and his devotion to pleasure. In his 16th year, he became very fond of women. For 15 years, he was connected with one, by whom he had a son. He left her only when he changed his whole course of life. A book of Cicero's, called Hortensius, which has not come down to our times, led him to the study of philosophy; and, when he found this did not satisfy his feelings, he went over to the sect of the Manichæans. He was one of their disciples for nine years; but, after having obtained a correct knowledge of their doctrines, he left them, and departed from Africa to Rome, and thence to Milan, where he announced himself as a teacher of rhetoric. Saint Ambrose was bishop of this city, and his discourses converted A. to the orthodox faith. The reading of Paul's Epistles wrought an entire change in his life and character. The Catholic church has a feast (May 3) in commemoration of this event. He retired into solitude, wrote there many books, and prepared himself for baptism, which he received in the 33d year of his

life, together with his son Adeodatus, from the hands of Ambrose. He returned to Africa, sold his estate, and gave the proceeds to the poor, retaining only enough to support him in a moderate manner. As he was once present in the church at Hippo, the bishop, who was a very old man, signified a desire to consecrate a priest to assist and succeed him. At the desire of the people, A. entered upon the holy office, preached with extraordinary success, and, in 395, became bishop of Hippo. He entered into a warm controversy with Pelagius (see Pelagians) concerning the doctrines of free will, of grace and of predestination, and wrote a book concerning them. A. maintained that men were justified merely through grace, and not through good works. (See Grace.) He died, Aug. 28, 403, while Hippo was besieged by the Vandals. There have been fathers of the church more learned, masters of a better language and a purer taste; but none have ever more powerfully touched the human heart, and warmed it towards religion. Painters have therefore given him for a symbol a flaming heart. Augustus Neander published, in Berlin, 1823, Sancti Augustini Confessionum Libri XIII. A. left a monument of his zeal for the monastic life by founding some monasteries for monks and nuns in Africa, which were shortly after destroyed by the Vandals. This order was governed by strict rules, but was very different from the one called, after him, Augustine. The different branches of the Augustine order were first established in the 11th and 12th centuries, and their rules were the work of the popes and priors. They did not constitute a regular order, however, till 1256, and, in 1567, were made the fourth in rank among the mendicant orders, coming after the Dominicans, Franciscans and Carmelites. They wear black cowls. Before the reformation, they had about 2000 convents, containing 30,000 monks, and also 300 nunneries. After the reformation brought about by Luther, a brother of their order, they were separated into many considerable brotherhoods, among which the barefooted monks, in Italy, Spain and France, were the most numerous. At the beginning of the 18th century, the order numbered 42 provinces. The number of convents of this order is now smaller. They are to be found in Italy, Spain, Portugal, in the Austrian states, and in America. In 1817, Augustine nuns of the congregation of Our Lady appeared again in Paris.