ian of the observer and the vertical circle passing through the star. It is easterly, if the star is observed before, westerly, if after, and zero, if at, the time of culmination. It is usual to connect with the quadrant a graduated, horizontal circle, called the azimuth circle. The zero of its divisions is brought into the situation of the meridian, and we have immediately the azimuth of the star, whose height above the horizon is determined by the telescope of the quadrant.

AZINCOURT. (See Agincourt.)

AZOGA SHIPS (from the Spanish azogue, quicksilver) were those Spanish ships, commonly called the quicksilver ships, from their carrying mercury to the Spanish West Indies, to extract the silver from the mines of Mexico and Peru. They were prohibited from carrying any goods except for the king of Spain.

AZOPH, or Azor; a small town and fortress in the Russian government of Ekaterinoslav, upon an island at the mouth of the Don, where it flows into the sea of Azoph. Lat. 46° 53′ N.; lon. 39° 14' E. It contains about 3000 inhabitants, and was, as late as 1774, given up entirely to the Russians by the Turks. The Sea of Azoph is merely a bay of the Black sea, with which it is united by the straits of Caffa. In the middle ages, it was called Mar de Zabacchi, and, in ancient times, Palus Mæotis. Its principal port is Taganrock. Its fish are plentiful. On Sept. 5, 1799, a new volcanic island was thrown up. The sea is 210 miles in length, and about 50 broad. Lat. 45° 20′ -47° 20′ N.; lon. 34° 30-39° 30′ E.

AZORES (i. e., Hawk islands); a group of nine Portuguese islands in the Atlantic ocean, between Africa and America, extending from 36° to 39° N. lat., and containing 1160 sq. miles. The inhabitants are of Portuguese origin, and governed by Portuguese laws. The country is volcanic and mountainous, but wellwatered and uncommonly fruitful. The highest mountain, the peak of Pico, is 7016 feet high. The climate is warm and healthy, producing corn, wine, and various fruits. The inhabitants are engaged in grazing and fisheries, have some manufactures and a lively trade. There is no good harbor. The Portuguese discovered these islands, A. D. 1446, though the Dutch navigators had seen them earlier, and called them the Flemish islands. Their names are St. Michael, population 80,000; Tercera, 28,900; Pico, 20,900; St. George, 11,200; Fayal, 16,300; Santa Maria, 5000; Graciosa, 7400; Flores,

7100; and Corvo, 800. Angra, the chief city, on Tercera, contains 15,000 inhabitants. The total population of the Azores is estimated by some at more than 200,000.

AZOTE (from a,

and on, life, because it is fatal to animal life; called also nitrogen, because one of the most important properties of its base is, that, in combination with oxygen, it composes nitric acid); a gas. Though incapable of supporting respiration or combustion, its presence seems to be necessary to dilute the oxygen, and thus diminish its activity. Atmospheric air is a mixture of oxygen and azote, in the proportion of 21 to 79 in volume. The specific gravity of azote is 0,9757, that of air being taken as unity. Its refractive power is 1,03408. The specific caloric of azote and the air, taken in equal volumes, is the same; taken by equal weights, that of azote is greater. Azote is procured by burning phosphorus in a receiver over mercury; the phosphorus unites with the oxygen, and the azote is set free: it still contains a small quantity of carbonic acid, which is separated by shaking the gas in a closed bottle, containing lime-water, from which the air has been exhausted. It is also evolved from decaying organized substances, and forms ammonia with their hydrogen when burnt. Azote has a feeble affinity for other substances; the number of mineral compounds into which it enters is, therefore, small.-Animal and vegetable substances differ from each other only in this, that the former contain azote, the latter are destitute of it.-Some chemists consider azote a compound of equal volumes of oxygen, and a base which they call nitricum.

AZYME, OF AZYMUS (Greek, alvos, without ferment, unleavened); a term much used in the violent controversies between the Roman and Greek Catholics; the former of whom contend, that the bread, in the mass, ought to be azymus. The controversies on this important subject are of equal consequence with those between the German Lutherans and Calvinists, whether the Lord's prayer ought to begin Our Father or Father of us; or between some religious orders, whether the cowl ought to be pointed or round, &c., &c., &c.

AZYMITES. (See Azyme.)

AZZARA, don Joseph Nicholas, chevalier d', born, 1731, at Barbanales, in Arragon, early showed a strong inclination for the arts and sciences, which was increased by his connexion with the painter Mengs,

who had entered the service of the king of Spain. A. entered on the career of diplomacy, was sent to pope Clement XIII, as royal agent for ecclesiastical affairs, highly distinguished himself in this post, and always maintained a great influence in the most important negotiations between his country and the papal court. (See Dohm's Memoirs of Joseph II. and Rome.) In 1796, he was sent to the conqueror of Italy, to obtain his favor towards Rome. Bonaparte immediately conceived an esteem for him, and, after this meeting, A. always regarded him with

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admiration. At that time, also, commenced his connexion with Joseph Bonaparte. He went soon after, in a diplomatic character, to Paris, where the agreeable society and reception which he met with compensated him for the loss of his old friends, of an elegant library, and a rich collection of paintings and antiques. He was subsequently recalled, banished to Barcelona, again sent ambassador to Paris, and again deprived of this important office. His feeble health at last gave way, and he died at Paris, Jan. 26, 1804.

B; the second letter in all European alphabets, in Hebrew, and most other languages. It belongs to the mutes and the labials, and, as all labials are easy to be pronounced, b is one of the first letters which children learn to speak, after they utter a. The first syllable which they pronounce is, generally, ba or pa. The pronunciation of b differs from that of only in this, that the lips are compressed a little more closely. The difference is so slight, that, in all original languages, a considerable period elapses before the two sounds cease to be used indifferently. In some languages, b continues to be pronounced v, under certain circumstances. In the Spanish, it has this sound between two vowels in the middle of a word, and, generally, when it occurs between a vowel preceding, and an r succeeding it. The modern Greeks pronounce b always v, and represent our sound of b by combining the two letters and ; e. g., Boston they write MrOGTOV. The languages of the American Indians have few perfect labials, and are, therefore, spoken with an open mouth, and scarcely any motion of the lips. Another letter, into which bis often changed, is p, which requires merely a stronger breathing, with the same motion of the lips. In one part of Saxony, the people use p and b indifferently, and, in another part, b is not used at all. Some languages regularly change b into p, under certain circumstances; as the Latin, when this letter occurs before p; thus ob is changed into op before ponere (opponere). The German pronounces b, at the end of

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a word, invariably p.-B is often used as an abbreviation, and its most common meanings are before (as in B. C.), bachelor (as in B. A., B. D., B. L.). Among the Greeks and Hebrews, B signified 2; among the Romans, 300; with a dash over it, 3000; and with a sort of accent under it, 200. (See Abbreviations.)—In music, b is the designation of the seventh note in the natural diatonic scale of c, to which De Nevers, a French musician, in the beginning of the last century, is said to have first applied the syllable si. The ancients denoted by b the second interval in their musical scale, beginning with a-the only interval, with them, which had two chords differing half a note. The lower one was denoted by a small B, the higher one by a large B.

BAAL, BEL; a Babylonian or Phonician god, the idea of whom has been very much obscured by time, and the imperfection of language. Some believe him to have been a man, the founder of Babylon; Herodotus calls him the son of Alcæus; others make him a Chaldean giant. From the traditions which history has transmitted to us, we might think him to have been an extraordinary man, who founded the kingdom of Babylon, and was afterwards deified. Some writers report of him, that he made the land fertile and habitable, connected rivers by canals, and surrounded Babylon with a wall. His son Ninus, the great conqueror, is said to have declared him a god after his death, and to have ordered that divine honors should be paid him. But his worship

was not limited to Babylon and Assyria; we find it among the Persians, Tyrians and others. Of the manner in which the god Baal was worshipped, we have but imperfect and contradictory statements. Amongst the sacrifices offered to him, the Bible mentions human victims, which, however, is, perhaps, a mere figurative expression, to denote the apostasy from Jehovah to Baal.-Besides, the name Baal or Bel, in several Oriental languages, signifies lord, and denotes the dignity of a ruler; e. g., when compounded with several proper names, as Bel-shazar, Hannibal.

BAALBEK. (See Balbek.)

BAAL-ZEBUB. (See Beelzebub.) BAAN, John van; a Dutch portrait painter, born in 1633, and died in 1702. He resided some time in England.

BABEL-MANDEB, or BabelmandEL (literally, the gate of affliction; anciently, Dira, or Dira); a narrow strait between the Indian ocean and the Red sea, formed by projecting points of Arabia in Asia, and Abyssinia in Africa. It is 15 miles wide. In the middle is an island, called El Mandel, or Perim, or Mehun. It is said to be about five miles in circumference, barren, and very thinly inhabited. Niebuhr, Bruce and lord Valentia give an account of these straits and this island.

BABER, or BABOUR, Sultan; the founder of the Mogul dynasty in Hindostan. He was descended from the great Tartar prince Timour, usually called Tamerlane, and was sovereign of Čabul. He attempted the conquest of Samarcand, and, while engaged in an expedition against it, was deprived of his hereditary dominions, and reduced to the utmost extremities, by an invasion of the Usbecks. After more than once recovering his fortunes, when they seemed to be almost desperate, he invaded Hindostan, and, in 1525, overthrew and killed sultan Ibrahim, the last Hindoo emperor of the Patan or Afghan race. Another emperor was chosen to oppose B., who, however, overcame the combination against him, and firmly established himself on the throne. After an active and glorious reign, he died in 1530. Ferishta, the Persian historian of Hindostan, informs us that this prince wrote an elegant history of his own life. He is said to have been of a voluptuous disposition; and he is noted as the first Indian sovereign who had the road, by which he travelled, measured after him. (See Dow's History of Hindostan.)

BABEUF, Francis Noel; one of the numerous individuals, of more zeal than

judgment, who distinguished themselves during the French revolution. He was born at St. Quentin, and left without resources, at the age of 16, by the death of his father. Having been unjustly impris oned in the citadel of Arras for forgery, he made his escape, and went to Paris, where, in concealment, he published a pamphlet against the Jacobins, entitled Du Systéme de Dépopulation, ou la Vie et les Crimes de Carrier, 8vo. Soon after, he started a democratic journal, called Le Tribun du Peuple, par Gracchus Babeuf. He then wrote with great severity against the Jacobins, and even addressed severe reproaches to the national representatives. After the fall of Robespierre, to which he powerfully contributed, he openly attacked the terrorists, and, after the organization of the new government, in 1795, he resumed his journal, and advocated in it the most democratic principles, with such energy as to bring on him the vengeance of the ruling powers. He was accused of a conspiracy against the directorial government, tried at Vendome, with some accomplices, declared guilty, and condemned to death, in 1797. He endeavored to destroy himself, but was prevented, and fell by the hand of the public executioner. The debates on his trial were published in 6 vols., 8vo.

BABINGTON, Anthony; a Catholic gentleman of Derbyshire, who associated with others of his own persuasion to assassinate queen Elizabeth, and deliver Mary, queen of Scots. The plot being discovered by Walsingham, the conspirators were executed in 1586. Babington seems to have been principally induced to this rash conspiracy by a romantic hope that Mary, in gratitude, would accept of him as a husband.

BABOON; a common name applied to a genus of monkeys, with the exception of one species peculiar to Africa. This genus is the cynocephalus, or dog-head monkies of modern naturalists, and is divided into two sub-genera, well characterized by the difference of their tails: the first is called baboon, having the tail longer than, or nearly as long as, the body, and continuous with the dorsal spine; the second, named mandrill, is characterized by a short, slender and pig-like tail, placed perpendicular to the dorsal spine. There are four species of the first and two of the second sub-genus. The most striking peculiarity of the whole is the elongated, dog-like head, with its flat, compressed cheeks, projecting and strong teeth, and forehead depressed below the level of the

superior margins of the orbits. Notwithstanding this close approximation to the shape of the dog's head, the form and position of the eyes, combined with the similarity of the arms and hands, give to these creatures a resemblance to humanity as striking as it is disgusting. The whole aspect of the animal impresses the beholder with an idea of great physical strength, united with a temper at once incorrigibly vicious and brutally ferocious. Such, at least, is the true character of the baboons capable of being ruled by the severest treatment. It is only while coërcion is continued, that they can be even partially restrained: left to their own will, their savage nature immediately resumes its sway, and their actions are gratuitously cruel, destructive and disgusting. The phrenologist finds ample evidence, in the conformity of the character of these creatures with their cerebral developement, of the correctness of his doctrine. In the vicinity of the cape of Good Hope, where a species of baboon (C. sphinx) is found in considerable numbers, the inhabitants chase them with dogs and guns, in order to destroy them, on account of the ravages they commit in the fields and gardens. They make a very obstinate and effectual resistance to the dogs, and only retreat before men when armed with guns. They feed exclusively on fruits, seeds, and other vegetable matter, which shows how independent their disposition is of every thing but peculiar organization. Nothing can exceed the lasciviousness of these disagreeable creatures, which, when in captivity, indulge their lubricity in the most disgusting manner-a circumstance which renders it unsafe for females to visit exhibitions of animals where these beasts form a part of the number. If a woman be in presence of a baboon, the slightest attention paid her by a man, the taking her by the hand, or exhibiting any approach to caresses, throws the animal into a paroxysm of rage, and, no doubt, could he escape, he would inflict severe punishment on the offender.-The baboon can never be called tamed, how long soever his confinement may have endured. As he advances in age, all his worst qualities become more strongly expressed, and his savage disposition grows exceedingly dangerous, and slight causes provoke him to terrible fury. For such reasons, these animals should not be allowed to form a part of a caravan for general exhibition, without being carefully secured and well watched. BABOUR. (See Baber.)

BABRIAS, or BABRIUS; a Greek poet,

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supposed to have lived a short time before the beginning of the Christian era. He turned the fables of Æsop into verse, of which work some fragments have been published in Fabula Gr. Lat., cum Notis Neveleti, Frankfort, 1660, 8vo. Mr. Tyrwhitt printed, in 1776, Dissertatio de Babrio, Fabularum Esopearum Scriptore, containing all the information he could collect concerning this ancient writer.

BABYLONIA (now, Irak Arabi); an old Asiatic empire, bounded E. by Susiana, S. by the Persian gulf and Chaldea, W. by Arabia Deserta, and N. by Media and Armenia, or Mesopotamia. As the Chaldeans had possession of the whole country, it was also included under the name Chaldea. It is a level region, watered by two great rivers, the Euphrates, or Frat, and the Tigris. The former stream, which is almost always on a level with its low banks, overflows on the slightest occasion. It inundates the whole country every spring, when it is swollen by the waters from the Armenian mountains, and fertilizes it as the Nile does Egypt. Nature has supplied the want of wood and stone by clay, which, when dried in the sun, or burnt in furnaces, makes durable bricks, that even to the present time have resisted the effects of the climate in the ruins of the ancient city. For mortar, the inhabitants use bitumen, of which there are copious springs. The extent of the old capital, Babylon, situated on the Euphrates, according to the representations of the ancients, approaches the miraculous. The walls are said to have been 350 feet high, and 87 feet thick; to have had 250 towers, and 100 gates of brass, and to have been more than 60 miles in circuit. The temple of Belus and the hanging gardens were among the greatest curiosities of this gigantic city, of which almost every trace is destroyed, The Babylonians, one of the most ancient nations of the earth, of the Semitic race, as appears by their language, which is an Aramaic or Syriac dialect, were a distinct people, with settled abodes, and a certain degree of scientific cultivation, as early as 2000 B. C. The Mosaic account mentions Nimrod as the founder of the first empire in Babylonia. The later Greeks describe Belus, Ninus and Semiramis as great conquerors. (See Assyria.) B. C. 630, the Chaldeans, a wandering people, under Nabopolassar, descended from Taurus and Caucasus, conquered Western Asia, destroyed Jerusalem under Nebuchadnezzar (588), subjected Tyre and Phoenicia, and found

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ed an empire which extended to the shores of the Mediterranean. Babylon, which, even earlier, was the seat of scientific, particularly of astronomical and astrological knowledge, was the capital of this empire. Commerce and industry introduced wealth, and this produced a love of luxury and magnificence. The manufactures of linen, cotton and silk were especially celebrated. Learning was confined to the priests, who are mentioned under the name of Chaldeans. Under Nabonidas, the empire declined, until Cyrus put an end to it by destroying the capital, in 536, and united Babylonia with Persia. It shared the fate of Persia until A. D. 640, when it was conquered by the followers of Mohammed, who built Bagdad on the Tigris in 762. This became the seat of the caliphs, who were expelled, in 1258, by Holagou, a prince of the Tartars. In 1534, Bagdad fell into the power of the Turkish victors, from whom Shah Abbas took it in 1613. It came, with Babylonia, anew under the dominion of the Turks, in 1639, who possess it at the present day.— Of the ruins of Babylon, which engage the attention of travellers in modern times, the most correct accounts are contained in the Memoir on the Ruins of Babylon, by Claude James Rich, resident of the East India company at the court of the pacha of Bagdad (3d edition, with copperplates, London, 1818). Rich, Niebuhr and Rennel suppose ancient Babylon to have been situated in the Turkish pachalic Bagdad, near the village Hill or Hella, which lies in 32° 28′ N. lat., on the eastern bank of the Euphrates, and contains 6-7000 inhabitants. In the neighborhood are a number of old, ruined canals. Idols, vessels, intaglios, &c., and even ruins of large buildings, are still seen there. Della Valle and Rennel think one of them to be the tower of Belus, The greatest height of this is 141 feet, and the sides are directed to the four cardinal points. Another ruin of a castle contains many caves and passages. A third, a huge oblong edifice, on the west ern side of the Euphrates, is called by the Arabians Birs Nimrud. This was first described by Rich. He takes it for the tower of Belus, the top of which was to serve as an observatory. Of this opinion is also Ker Porter. Grotefend has done much towards deciphering the arrowheaded inscriptions. The material is entirely brick, as described by Herodotus. Of the old city walls not a trace has been discovered. As to the rest, these ruins

bear the character of grandeur, but not of beauty. The ornaments still existing are clumsy and tasteless.

BACCALAUREUS (anciently, baccalarius, bachelor) denoted, in the middle ages, 1. a warrior of lower rank (bachelier), under a knight banneret; 2. transferred to the clergy, it signified a canon of the lowest rank; 3. a candidate who had passed three academical courses and examinations, and was himself entitled to give lectures without being reckoned among the independent lecturers. This was, consequently, the lowest academical degree. After the first examination, he was called baccalaureus simplex; after the second (or Biblical), baccalaureus currens; after the third (philosophical and dogmatical), baccalaureus formatus. The baccalaureus could now become a licentiate, i. e., acquire all the rights of a teacher. In France, this institution remained until the revolution. In England, it is even now in existence, and the baccalaureus, created according to the regular forms, is called a formed bachelor; one who is created by an extraordinary diploma, a current bachelor.-In the universities of Cambridge and Oxford, a bachelor of arts must keep a certain number of terms; and a bachelor of divinity must be a master of arts. There are, also, at these universities, bachelors of laws, of medicine and of music.-In France, since the 1st of October, 1822, he who wishes to become baccalaureus must have attended, at least one year, the philosophical course, in one of the royal colleges, institutes of education or divinity schools, in which philosophy is taught. Those candidates, likewise, who have been educated and instructed in the house of their father, of their brother, or uncle, can be admitted to the baccalauréat des lettres. The candidates for the academical degree of baccalaureus are examined in all that is taught in the higher classes of the royal colleges, that is, in Greek and Latin authors, rhetoric, history, philosophy, the elements of mathematics and natural history.-Bachelor of arts is a degree commonly conferred, in the U. States, on students who have completed the course of study established at the several colleges in this country. BACCHANALIA. (See Bacchus and Or