and lord commissioner of the treasury; was made privy counsellor, and in 1802 speaker of the house of commons. This post is fatiguing, but lucrative on account of the large fees for the enrolment of private bills which pass the house. These bills are referred to a committee, whose reports are almost always accepted, unless they propose an innovation on some established usage. The speaker is very watchful to prevent the occurrence of any thing informal in the wording of the bills, and to check all personalities in debate. This superintendence A. is said to have exercised with much impartiality. When the opposition made a motion in the house of commons to impeach lord Melville, (Dundas,) the votes were equal, and the motion was decided in the affirm ative by A.'s casting vote. In 1817, he resigned his office of speaker, on account of weakness in his eyes, and entered the house of lords, having been created viscount Colchester. He is the author of a treatise on commerce and maritime law, according to the principles of the British ministry, (Lond. 1802, a third edit. 1808.) Died May 8, 1829.

ABBOT, (Heb. abbas, father,) was originally the name of every aged monk; but since the 8th century, it denotes the head of a monastery. The abbot requires unconditional obedience from his monks, and his office is to supervise the whole brotherhood, to enforce the observance of the rules of the order, and manage the property of the convent. Since the 6th century, abbots have always been priests; and, since the second council of Nice, in 787, have enjoyed the power of conferring the lower orders of priesthood; but, in the essential points of jurisdiction, were every where subject to the diocesan bishop, till the 11th century, and independent of each other. The consequence of the abbots grew with the wealth of their monasteries; several, especially in those countries where the diffusion of Christianity proceeded from the monastic establishments, received episcopal titles and privileges; all held a rank next to that of bishop, and had a vote in the ecclesiastical councils. Equal privileges and rights appertained to the abbesses as the superiors of the nunneries, except that they have seldom been allowed to vote in synods; and the power of ordaining, the administration of the sacraments, and other sacerdotal offices, were expressly forbidden them, in the 9th centu

ry.

About this time, by the favor or from the wants of the kings, abbeys fre

quently came into the hands of the laity What avaricious barons had extorted from single convents in the 8th century, the weakness of the Carlovingians accorded to their partisans, as a reward of fidelity and military merit, since the kings possessed the right of patronage over all abbeys established on their crown lands or family estates, and generally over all which derived their origin from the royal bounty, (monasteria regalia.) Thus, in the 10th century, a number of the most considerable convents in the territory of the Roman church had lay abbots, or abbot-counts, (abbates milites, abba comites,) who appropriated to their own use the income of these institutions. In cloisters fallen to such worldly masters, the spiritual supervision was discharged by inferior abbots, deans, or priors. To the princes and princesses of the royal family, abbeys were presented, to defray the expenses of their tables: the richest were retained by the kings themselves; (thus Hugh Capet was abbot of St. Denis, near Paris, and of St. Martin, at Tours.) Nunneries were sometimes assigned to men, and monasteries to distinguished females. But this abuse, which had crept even into the Byzantine empire, rarely survived the laymen who had received the gifts. These were called commendatory abbots, because the form of the presentation was a recommendation of the convent to their protection. The zeal, which, in the beginning of the 10th century, urged a reform in monastic discipline, gradually succeeded in abolishing such donatives to the laity; and military abbots were now more rarely seen discharging, in person, the duties of a soldier, though the convents under royal patronage were for a long time retained, to reward the services of the crown vassals in war, by contributions of money and peasants. The superiors of the military clergy bore, in the camp, the name of field abbots, as the name of abbot was, in the middle ages, frequently used to denote not only magistrates (as abbas populi, the prætor at Genoa) and secular ecclesiastical dignitaries, but also the chiefs of religious and jovial fraternities, e. g. abbas cornardorum, stultorum,the abbot of misrule. In consequence of the reform commenced at Cluny, there arose new monasteries without abbots, over which the abbot of the convent of reformed Benedictines, at this place, appointed priors or pro-abbates, or even coabbates, who remained dependent on him. Besides the Benedictines, only the gray monks of Vallombrosa, the Cistercians,

Bernardines, Feuillans, Trappists, Grandmontani, Præmonstratenses, and some bodies of regular choristers, denominate their superiors abbots. In the other orders, the titles majores, ministri, priors or rectors, were in use. Besides the female branches of the above orders, the nuns of Fontevraud and the female secular choristers have abbesses. These have always remained under the jurisdiction of their diocesan bishops. The abbots of many other convents, on the contrary, shook off the authority of the bishops, and acknowledged no master but the pope. The mitred abbots enjoyed the right, frequently conferred on the Benedictines in the middle ages by the papal legate, of adopting the episcopal title and insignia. Only a few, however, possessed the episcopal power with dioceses of their own, of whom there was not one in France. Before the period of secularization, there were in Germany, but in Germany only, princely abbots and princely abbesses. These abbeys were secularized in 1803, and became principalities, By rule, the choice of abbots appertains to the chapters of their convents. In the independent abbeys, this is followed by the papal confirmation; in the dependent, by the episcopal: yet, for a long time, many abbeys in Italy have been conferred by the pope, and, in France, by the king, not withstanding the concordat of 1516. The secular clergy, who enjoy these benefices without observing the rules of the order, are termed secular abbots; on the other hand, their vicars in the convents them. selves, like all abbots of the monkish order, are called regular abbots. Younger sons of distinguished families have often entered the ranks of the secular clergy, in order to become secular abbots, and to receive the income of an abbey,without being restricted by monastic rules. As such expectants were called in France abbés, this became a general appellation for young secular clergy who were out of office. (See Abbé.) Since the revolution, which changed the abbeys into national property, and took from those expectants the object of their exertions, this class has diminished in France; but it is yet numerous in Italy, where young scholars are called abbots, merely from having undergone the tonsure, though not in orders. Napoleon led a whole army of Italian abbots to Corsica, where they lived on reduced incomes, till the restoration scattered them again over Italy. At the time of the reformation, several abbeys and convents were retained for the benefit of the clergy and the support of unmarried

females. Some Protestant clergymen, therefore, still bear the title of abbot, with which dignity the right of sitting in the diet of the states is united; as, for example, in the Wurtemburg assembly. There are also Protestant ladies who are called abbesses. In Lower Saxony, this dignity was indeed abolished, at the time of the confiscation of the cloisters, etc., under the French Westphalian government; but in some countries, e. g. in the kingdom of Hanover, it has been restored, In the Greek church, the superiors of a convent are called higumeni, mandoœ, and the abbots general, archimandrites.

ABBREVIATIONS; (called by the Romans nota; hence notarius, a short-hand writer.) The desire of saving time and space, or of secrecy, led to the invention of abbreviations in writing. The abbreviations of the Romans were of three sorts: 1. Words and syllables were abbreviated, sigla; 2. One letter was substituted for another, for the purpose of secrecy; 3. Arbitrary signs were used, like those of mathematics. The sigla are again of three kinds, according as the abbreviations relate to syllables, words, or phrases. The two last kinds of sigla are sometimes called nota Tironiana, from Cicero's freed man, Tullius Tiro. Ennius, however, had already invented 1100 of those signs, to which Tiro added the prepositions, Others increased their number still more, and Lucius Annæus Seneca collected and arranged 5000 of them. But even Ennius was not their first inventor. Every written language has such abbreviations, Many of them are indeterminate and uncertain, and the contents of many old writings and inscriptions remain, on that account, ambiguous. The oldest and most common abbreviations are those of names, titles, and formulas; e. g. M. Marcus, Ed. ædilis, Cos. consul, Coss. consules, &c. The monks, in the middle ages, made use of many abbreviations in copying the classic authors on which account the manuscripts of that time cannot be read with ease, except by practised eyes. These abbreviations often give rise to different readings. They have been much less used since the invention of printing. The Germans employ them, for ordinary words, in greater proportion than other civilized nations. The abbreviations in the English law are numerous; there are also a great many for English titles. Many words in the modern languages arose from abbreviations of Latin terms, as they were taken by the ignorant for the words themselves. The following

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Roman Abbreviations on Coins, &c.A. U. C. or AB. U. C. ab urbe condita, from the foundation of the city: C. centum: CIO or CX3, 1000: 35, 5000: CCC330,100,000: C. ML. centum millia: COS. consul: COSS. consules: C.R. civis Romanus: D.O. diis optimis vel deo optimo: I. H. S. Jesus hominum Salvator: IMP. imperator: K. kalenda: M. S. manu scriptum: NON. APR. nonis Aprilis: PON. M. pontifex maximus: PRID. KAL. pridie kalendas: QUIR. quirites: RESP. respublica: S. C. senatus consultum: S. P. Q. R. senatus populusque Romanus: VL. videlicet.

Abbreviations in common use.-A. B. or B. A. bachelor of arts: Abp. archbishop: A. C. ante Christum: A. D. anno Domini, in the year of our Lord: Admr. administrator: Ala. Alabama: A. M. ante meridiem, forenoon; also, anno mundi, in the year of the world; and artium magister, master of arts: Ark. T. Arkansas territory: B. C. before Christ: B. D. bachelor of divinity: B. M. bachelor of medicine: Bp. bishop: B. V. blessed Virgin: C. or Chap. chapter: C. or cent. a hundred: C. B. companion of the Bath: C.C. Caius college: C.P.S. keeper of the privy seal: C.S. keeper of the seal: Ct. Connecticut: Ct. count: Cwt. hundred weight: D. C. District of Columbia: D. D. doctor of divinity: Del. Delaware: D. F. defender of the faith D. G. Dei gratia: D. T. doctor of theology: Dwt. pennyweight: E. G. exempli gratia: Ex. example: Exr. executor: F.A. S. fellow of the antiquarian society: F. L. S. fellow of the Linnaan society: F. R. S. and A. S. fellow and associate of the royal society: F. S. A. fellow of the society of arts: Gal. gallon: G. C. B. knight grand cross of the Bath: Geo. Georgia: G. R. Georgius rex, king George: H. or hr. hours: Hhd. hogshead: H. M. S. his majesty's ship: or ibid. ibidem, in the same place: I. e. id est, that is: I.H. S. Jesus hominum Salvator: I. H. S. in hac cruce salus: Ill. Illinois: In. Indiana: Incog. incognito, unknown: Inst. instant, or of this month: J. U. D. juris utriusque doctor: K. B. knight of the Bath: K. C. B. knight commander of the Bath: Ky. Kentucky: Kil. kilderkin: Kt. knight: L. or lib. libra, pound; and also, liber, book: La. Louisiana: L.D. lady day: Ldp. lordship: Lea, leagues: Lieut. lieutenant: L. L. D. legum doctor, doctor of laws: L.S. locus sigilli, the place

Ib.

Massachusetts: M. C. member of eongress: M. D. doctor of medicine: Md. Maryland: Me. Maine: Messrs. messieurs, gentlemen: Mic. T. Michigan territory: Mis. Mississippi: Mo. Missouri: M. P. member of parliament: MS. manuscript: MSS. manuscripts: N. B. nota bene, take notice: N. C. North Carolina: Nem. con. or Nem. diss. nemine contradicente, or nemine dissentiente, unanimously: N.H. New Hampshire: N. J. New Jersey: N. S. new, style: N. Y. New York: Obt. obedient: Oh. Ohio: O. S. old style: Oxon. Orford: Oz. ounces: Pa. Pennsylvania: Parl. parliament: Part. participle: Per cent. per centum, by the hundred: Pl. plural: P. M. post meridiem: P. S. postscriptum: Q. question: Q. E. D. quod erat demonstrandum: Q. E. F. quod erat faciendum: Q. S. quantum sufficit: Q.V. quod vide: Rev. reverend: R. I. Rhode İsland : R. N. royal navy: Rt. Hon. right honorable: Rt. Wpful. right worshipful: S. south: S. or St. saint: S. or Sec. seconds: S. C. South Carolina: Sec. secretary: Sh. shillings: ss. scilicet: St. street: Ten. Tennessee: Ult. ultimo, last: U. S. United States: Virginia: Viz. videlicet: Vt. Vermont: W. or Wk. week: Xmas. Christmas: Xn. Christian: Xper. Christopher: Y. the: Y them: Y". then: Y'. your, and year: Y. this: Y'. that.

Va.

ABBREVIATORI. Officers in the court of Rome, appointed to assist the vice chancellor in drawing up the pope's briefs, and reducing petitions, when granted by the pope, into proper form, to be converted into bulls. The 12 first have the dress and rank of prelates; 22 others belong to the lower clergy; the rest are laymen. The salary of an A. of the first rank in the last century was 2000 scudi.

ABBT, Thomas, a philosophical writer, born Nov. 25th, 1738, at Ulm in Suabia, early manifested distinguished talents, and taste for the sciences. In 1756, he entered the university of Halle, where he applied himself to metaphysics and mathematics, quitting theology, to which he had at first devoted himself. In 1760, he was invited to join the university of Frankfort, on the Oder, as professor extraordinary. Here he wrote, amidst the tumult of war, his treatise on Death for one's Country. In the following year, after he had accepted an appointment as professor of mathematics, at Rinteln, he lived six months at Berlin, where he became intimate with both the Eulers, Mendelsohn and Nicolai, and took an

active part in the letters on literature, (Literaturbriefen.) He died in 1766, in the prime of life, at the residence of one of the minor German princes, his intimate friend and protector. A.'s writings exhibit acuteness, imagination, and spirit, and abound with practical philosophy, particularly his treatise on "Merit." He certainly would have ranked among the most distinguished writers, if he had lived till his mind was fully matured. Young as he was, he deserves to be numbered among the writers, who, in the time of Lessing, labored with united zeal to raise and refine German literature.

ABDERA, a city on the Thracian coast, which is said to have been founded by Hercules. Though it boasted of being the native place of Democritus and Protagoras, yet it was regarded among the ancients as notorious for stupidity. Wieland has portrayed it as such, in an amusing manner, in his Abderites.

ABDICATION, properly speaking, is only a voluntary resignation of a dignity, particularly the supreme. Of royal abdications, the most famous are those of the emperors Diocletian and Maximian, in 305; of the emperor Charles V., in 1556; of the queen Christina of Sweden, in 1654. They have been the most frequent in Spain: Charles I., in 1556; Philip V., in 1724; Charles IV., in 1808: next in Savoy and Sardinia: Amadeus I., in 1440; Victor Amadeus II., in 1730: but only a few individuals have remained faithful to their resolutions; e. g. Diocletian, Charles V., and Victor Emanuel, king of Sardinia, who abdicated in favor of his brother Felix, in 1821. (See Piedmont, revolution of.) Victor Amadeus, of Sardinia, attempting to resume the government by force, was imprisoned by his son, Charles Emanuel III. Involuntary resignations are also called abdications; e. g. Napoleon's abdication at Fontainebleau. The right of a prince to resign the crown cannot be disputed; but the resignation, as some say, can affect only his personal right to the crown, and cannot prejudice his descendants; still less force upon the state another constitution, or another family. The abdication of Charles IV. of Spain, according to them, could only take effect in favor of the legitimate successor, but could not entitle a foreign sovereign to establish a new dynasty. The abdicated prince is sometimes allowed exterior marks of homage, the title of majesty, &c.; but sovereign powers he can no longer exercise. Out of his own country, he enjoys not the honors of a monarch, nor,

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in general, jurisdiction over his suite. If he, in whose favor the abdication was made, dies, or declines the offered dignity, the right of the abdicated prince is revested. Thus Philip V. of Spain resumed the throne upon the death of his son Louis, which took place half a year after he had resigned in his favor. But queen Christina of Sweden made a similar attempt in vain. Voluntary abdications, as they are called, are often involuntary, and the effects of court intrigue.

ABDOMEN, in anatomical language, the belly. Abdominal muscles, the muscles of the belly.

ABEL, the second son of Adam, a twin brother of Cain. The latter was a tiller of the ground, A. a shepherd. Both brought their offerings before the Lord; Cain, the first fruits of the ground; A., the firstlings of his flock. God accepted the offering of A.; the offering of Cain he rejected. The latter, instigated by envy, murdered his brother in the field. Thus the first murder on earth was committed. The opinion of several Christian fathers, that A. died unmarried, has given rise to the sect of Abelites or Abelonites, (q. v.) The church considers the offering of A. as the pattern of a pure and holy offering, pleasing to God, and Christ himself calls him the just.

ABELARD, Peter, originally Abailard, a monk of the order of St. Benedict, equally famous for his learning and for his unfortunate love of Heloise, was born in 1079, near Nantes, in the little village of Palais, which was the property of his father Berenger. His inclination led him to the study of the sciences; and, in order to devote himself fully to philosophy, he ceded to his brothers his rights of primogeniture and his estates. He studied poetry, rhetoric, philosophy, jurisprudence, and theology, the Greek, Hebrew, and Latin languages, and soon became familiar with them; but scholastic philosophy chiefly engaged his attention. Though Bretagne then possessed many distinguished scholars, A. soon acquired all they could teach. He went therefore to Paris, the university of which attracted students from all parts of Europe. William de Champeaux was the most skilful disputant of his time. A. made so good use of his instructions, that he was often victorious over his master, in contests of wit and logical acumen. The friendship of Champeaux was soon succeeded by enmity, in which his other scholars took part, and A., who had not yet completed his 22d year, escaped the consequences of their ill-will, by fixing himself at Melun,

where he was soon followed by a multitude of young men, who were induced, by his reputation, to leave the schools of Paris, in order to attend his lectures. Envy pursued him here, and he left Melun for Corbeil, where he was no less admired and persecuted. In compliance with the advice of his physicians, he soon after remitted his labors, for the purpose of restoring his disordered health by a journey to his native place. After two years, he returned with renovated strength to Paris, became reconciled to his former teacher, and opened a school of rhetoric, the fame of which soon deprived all the others of their pupils. He lectured on rhetoric, philosophy, and theology, and educated many distinguished scholars, among whom were the future pope, Colestin II., Peter of Lombardy, bishop of Paris, Berengar, bishop of Poitiers, and St. Bernard. At this time, there resided at Paris a young lady, by name Louisa or Hélöise, niece to Fulbert, a canon of that city, then of the age of 17 years. Few ladies surpassed her in beauty, none equalled her in genius and knowledge. A., though already of the age of 39 years, became inspired with such violent love for Heloise as to forget his duty, his lectures, and his fame. Heloise was no less sus ceptible. Under the pretext of finishing her education, A. obtained Fulbert's permission to visit her, and finally became a resident in the house of the canon. The lovers lived several months in the utmost happiness, occupied more with their love than with their studies. But the verses in which A. celebrated his passion were circulated in Paris, and finally reached the eyes of Fulbert. He separated the lovers, but too late; Heloise was already pregnant. A. filed with her to Bretagne, where she was delivered of a son, who died, however, early. He now resolved to marry her secretly. F. was obliged to give his consent, and Héloise, who, from a false delicacy, preferred to be his mistress rather than his wife, and had formerly written to him that she would not deprive the world of so great a man by domestic cares, at last consented. The marriage was performed, and, in order to keep it secret, Heloise remained with her uncle, whilst A. retained his former lodgings, and continued his lectures. They saw each other but seldom; Fulbert, how ever, thought the reputation of his niece would be injured by this secret union, and made it known; but Héloise, valuing A.'s fame higher than her own good name, denied her marriage with an oath.

Fulbert manifested his anger by ill treatment; to deliver her from which, A. carried her away a second time, and placed her in the convent of Argenteuil. Fulbert erroneously believed it was intended to force her to take the veil, and, under the influence of rage, he subjected A. to an ignominious mutilation. A. became, in consequence, a monk in the abbey of St. Denis, and Héloise took the veil at Argenteuil. After time had somewhat moderated his grief, he resumed his lectures, and incurred new persecutions; his enemies accused him of heresy at the council of Soissons, 1122, on account of his Essay on the Trinity. They succeeded in having it declared heretical, and A. was condemned to burn it with his own hands. Continued persecutions obliged him at last to leave the abbey of St. Denis, and to retire to a place near Nogent-sur-Seine, where he built an oratory, which he dedicated to the Holy Ghost, and called it Paraclete. Being subsequently appointed abbot of St. Gildas de Ruys, he invited Heloise and her religious sisterhood to reside at his chapel Paraclete, and received them there. The lovers saw each other here again for the first time after a separation of 11 years. A. lived afterwards at St. Gildas, which afforded him but a gloomy residence, troubled by unsuccessful attempts to reform the monastery, and struggling always with his love for Heloise, and the hatred of the monks, who even threatened his life. St. Bernard, who had long refused to proceed against a man whom he esteemed, finally yielded to the repeated remonstrances of his friends, laid the doctrines of A. before the council of Sens, in 1140, had them condemned by the pope, and obtained an order for his imprisonment. A. appealed to the pope, published his defence, and went to Rome. Passing through Clu ny, he visited Peter the Venerable, who was abbot there. This humane and enlightened divine effected a reconciliation between him and his enemies; but A. resolved to end his days in retirement. The severe penances which he imposed upon himself, together with the grief which never left his heart, gradually consumed his strength, and he died, a pattern of monastic discipline, in 1142, at the abbey of St. Marcel, near Châlonssur-Saône, at the age of 63 years. He loise begged his body, and had him buried in the Paraclete, with the view of reposing in death by his side. In 1800, the ashes of both were carried to the museum