cents and of women 16 cents.-CHATEAUROUX, the chief town of the arrondissement, called Indreville during the first French revolution, is situated on the railway from Paris to Limoges, near the left bank of the Indre, on a vast plain, 160 m. from Paris. There is an old castle on an eminence above the Indre, a gloomy building in which the princess de Condé, niece of Richelieu, died in 1692, after having been imprisoned there for nearly 23 years. Chateauroux is one of the principal cloth manufacturing places of central France, the annual value of cloth being estimated at $800,000, and the wools produced in Berry being almost exclusively used in the fabrication. There are various other manufactures, and a considerable trade in the produce of the country, and important wool and iron fairs are held here. The branch office of the banque de France, at Châteauroux, discounted in 1857 bills to the extent of $1,000,000, and made advances on securities and specie to the amount of $220,000.

CHÂTEAU-THIERRY, an arrondissement and town in the French department of Aisne (Champagne); pop. of the former in 1856, 61,556, and of the latter, 5,523. The arrondissement consists of 5 cantons, and possesses 115,000 acres of grain land, 6,500 in vineyards, 7,500 in various products, 34,500 in meadow and pasturage, 47,000 of fallow land, 53,000 in wood and forest. The annual value of raw material employed in manufacturing is only about $2,000, and of manufactured goods about $7,000. Seventy-eight hands are employed in these, the average daily wages being for the men 36 cents, for women 17 cents.-CHATEAU-THIERRY, the town, is pleasantly situated on the right bank of the river Marne, on the Paris and Strasbourg railway, 591 m. by rail from the former city, and about 30 m. from Epernay. La Fontaine was born there.

CHÂTEL, FERDINAND FRANÇOIS, the founder of the so-called French Catholic church, born at Gannat, department of Allier, Jan. 9, 1795, died in Paris, Feb. 11, 1857. His family being poor, he was apprenticed to a tailor. His assiduous attendance at church attracted the attention of a member of the clergy, who procured him admission to a theological seminary, where he was ordained in 1818. He became afterward a chaplain in the army, and from 1823 to 1830 officiated successfully as a preacher in several churches of Paris. Dissenting from the tenets of the Roman Catholic church, he had been for some time engaged in disseminating his views, and after the revolution of 1830 he came publicly forward as a reformer. He opened a free church on the boulevard St. Martin, which was attended by many attracted by curiosity, and by a few by sympathy with his views. He denied the divinity of Christ, and reduced religion to an operation of material laws. In 1831, at a mass meeting of his disciples, he caused himself to be proclaimed "primate bishop" of the new church. But divisions broke out among his followers, and

his church was closed by the government in 1842. Appointed to a clerkship in the general post-office, he discontinued his agitation until 1848, when, on the outbreak of the revolution, he espoused the cause of woman's rights. He advocated the sanctioning of divorce by the church of Rome, and was one of the principal orators at the club for the emancipation of woman, over which Madame Niboyet presided. In the latter part of his life he endeavored to support himself as a teacher, but was mainly dependent upon his friends.

At

CHATELET (anc. Castellucium), the name of 2 fortresses which existed in Paris in former times, supposed to have been built by Julius Cæsar. The grand châtelet was restored and enlarged by St. Louis, Charles VIII., and Louis XII., remodelled by Louis XIV., and demolished in 1802. It stood on the right bank of the Seine, in the locality now occupied by the western part of the place du châtelet. It was the resi dence of the counts, and afterward of the provosts of Paris, and became celebrated as a prison, and as an important seat of the judiciary. the time of the suppression of the latter in 1790, the court contained, from the provost down to the ushers and policemen, 1,207 officers, beside a large number of lawyers, who transacted business there, and the military forces of the châtelet, which consisted of 2 companies of soldiers, part of whom were at the same time employed as ushers.-The petit châtelet was situated on the left bank of the Seine, on the site of the present place du petit pont; swept away by an inundation in 1296, it was rebuilt in 1369, and demolished in 1782. Originally it was one of the gates of Paris, where tolls and excise duties were levied. The châtelets at Orleans and Montpellier were, like those of Paris, the seats of judicial bodies.

CHÂTELLERAULT, an arrondissement and town of France, department of Vienne; pop. of the former in 1856, 60,556, and of the latter, 14,084. The arrondissement comprises 6 cantons, and possesses 104,000 acres in grain, 10,000 in vines, 8,000 in various crops, 30,000 in natural and artificial meadow, 46,000 of fallow land, and 53,000 in wood and forest. The average annual value of raw material employed in manufacturing is $1,000,000, and of manufac tured goods $1,100,000. The number of hands employed is 1.229, and the average daily wages is 34 cents for men, and 12 cents for children.The town is situated on the right bank of the Vienne, on the railroad from Paris to Bordeaux, 190 m. by rail from the former, and 175 m. from the latter city. It is one of the great centres of the manufacture of cutlery in France, which gives employment to about 600 families. There is also a national manufactory of sidearms, established in 1820. The annual value of the arms manufactured here for the government varies from $100,000 to $200,000. The town possesses, also, important iron works, manufactories of jewelry, laces, and hardware. An

active trade is carried on in the produce of the country, and in lithographic stones obtained from the neighboring quarries. A fine stone bridge, constructed by order of Sully, and called by him Pont Henri IV., connects the town with the suburbs on the left bank of the Vienne. At the E. end of the bridge is a huge castle, flanked with 4 massive towers, with a lofty arch in the centre of the building, under which the high road enters the town.

CHATHAM. I. A central co. of N. C., drained by Rocky and New Hope rivers, and, traversed by the Haw and the Deep, which unite in the S. E. part to form the Cape Fear; area, 700 sq. m.; pop. in 1850, 18,449, of whom 5,985 were slaves. The surface is diversified, the soil fertile and clayey. Extensive beds of stone coal have been discovered in the vicinity of Deep river, which is navigable as far as the mines. The productions in 1850 were 625,828 bushels of Indian corn, 126,178 of wheat, 99,660 of oats, 4,893 tons of hay, 960 bales of cotton, and 18,757 lbs. of tobacco. There were 26 grist mills, 10 saw mills, 2 woollen factories, 6 tanneries, 1 newspaper office, 53 churches, and 1,750 pupils attending publio schools. Value of real estate in 1857, $1,968,411. The county was organized in 1770, and named in honor of William Pitt, earl of Chatham. Capital, Pittborough. II. An E. co. of Ga., bordering on the sea; area, 358 sq. m.; pop. in 1852, 26,223, of whom 11,549 were slaves. It is bounded on the N. E. by the Savannah river, on the S. W. by the Ogeechee. The surface is level, and partly occupied by swamps. Near the rivers the soil is fertile and productive; in other parts it is barren and sandy. The productions in 1850 were 57,427 bushels of Indian corn, 33,815 of sweet potatoes, 19,453,750 lbs. of rice, and 580 bales of cotton. There were 1 grist and 1 saw mill, 3 brick yards, 4 newspaper offices, 14 churches, and 340 pupils attending public schools. Capital, Savannah. Value of real estate in 1856, $2,621,839.

CHATHAM, a parliamentary and municipal borough and naval arsenal of England, co. of Kent, situated on the right bank of the Medway, near its confluence with the Thames, 30 m. S. E. of London, and adjoining Rochester, with a station on the East Kent railway; pop. in 1851, 28,424. It includes the village of Brompton just below it, on the same side of the river. It is a dirty, ill-built, irregular town, with many wooden houses, and few buildings of interest. It has 2 churches, 7 chapels, 5 schools, a mechanics' institution, 2 public libraries, and 2 hospitals. Its great feature, and the sole cause of its importance, is the vast naval establishment at its lower end, commenced by Elizabeth, and improved by her successors, until it is now one of the finest in Great Britain. The yard has a river wall 5,000 feet long, and covers an area estimated at 92 acres. On the land side all the works are shut in by a strong line of fortifications, with

several defences on the Chatham and Brompton sides, among which are Fort Pitt, between the former place and Rochester, Fort Gillingham, Upnor castle, across the river, now used as a magazine, and a strong redoubt on an eminence at the S. E. end of the yard. The houses within this enclosure, which belong to the village of Brompton, are tenanted chiefly by persons employed in the yard. The superintendent's residence is in the centre, surrounded by a fine garden. There are 5 dry docks and 10 building slips, 7 of the latter being for vessels of the largest class. The want of a wet dock is in some measure supplied by the river, which flows past the yard in a fine deep channel. At the S. extremity of the enclosure is a ropery 1,248 feet long, in which 250 workmen are employed, and which is equal to the manufacture of every kind of cordage required for the naval service. The hemp houses are 306 feet long by 36 feet wide, and next to these are the docks and slips, the working sheds, timber berths, seasoning sheds, artificers' shops, deal and iron yards, and a smith's shop containing 40 forges, and furnished with a powerful blast engine worked by steam. Every kind of smithery necessary in ship-building, from the manufacture of small bolts to the forging of anchors 5 tons in weight, is done here. The lower part of the yard is occupied by vast mast-houses and slips, store boat houses, saw pits, ballast wharf, &c. At the upper end is one of the completest saw mills in the kingdom, erected by Sir Mark Isambart Brunel, and thought to be capable of sawing timber enough for nearly all the dockyards of England. Connected with the steam engine by which it is driven are extensive water-works. On the ordnance wharf are stored guns, carriages, and immense piles of shot. There was formerly a small victualling depot here; ships now take in their provisions at Deptford or Sheerness. A convict establishment, comprising from 900 to 1,000 prisoners, who worked in the docks, was also removed several years ago. The number of workmen employed is very large, and in time of war exceeds 3,000. Each department has its proper officer, and with such admirable system and despatch is every thing performed, that a few days only are required to fit out a ship of the line. Connected with the yard are 3 barracks, viz.: the lower, for 25 companies of marines, the upper or Brompton, and the artillery barracks, with a park of artillery. There is also a school for engineers, in which young officers and recruits are instructed in the practical details of their duties, and near the ordnance wharf is a handsome chapel. In 1667 the Dutch, under De Ruyter, after destroying Sheerness, sailed up the Medway with 17 light ships and 8 fire ships, broke a chain stretched across the river, destroyed several sail of the line and a quantity of stores, in the face of a hot fire from Upnor castle, and retired with trifling loss, carrying off a ship of war named the Royal Charles. In the improved condition

of the defences, it is believed that such an exploit would be now impossible.

CHATHAM, EARL OF. See PITT, WILLIAM. CHATHAM ISLANDS, a group in the Pacific, belonging to Great Britain, E. of New Zealand, between lat. 43° 40′ and 45° 20′ S., long. 176° and 177° 20' W., consisting of Wairi-kaori, or Chatham island, from 80 to 90 m. in circumference; Rangi-haute, or Pitt island, 12 m. long by 8 broad; and a number of others which are mere barren rocks. The W. shore of the largest island is undulating, and clad with vegetation to the water's edge; the N. shore is flat; the S. and part of the E. rocky and precipitous. There are several bays and some good harbors, which have been frequented by whalers ever since the discovery of the group by Broughton in 1791. A whaling station was established at Oinga in 1840. Near the middle of the island is Tewanga lake, 25 m. long and 6 or 7 m. broad, S. of which the country is generally arable, the products being similar to those of New Zealand. The climate is mild and healthy. The aboriginal inhabitants, but few of whom remain, are of the Malay race, darker than the New Zealanders, by whom they have been reduced to slavery. The conquerors are said to have come from Port Nicholson a few years ago, whence they were driven by the Kapiti tribes. Lieut. Wilkes, of the U. S. exploring expedition, who visited the island in 1840, describes it as a nest of rogues, though the aborigines are said to be cheerful, good-natured, and inoffensive.

CHATILLON-SUR-SEINE, an arrondissement and town in France, department of the Côte d'Or; pop. of the former in 1856, 51,214, and of the latter 4,926. The arrondissement comprises 6 cantons, and contains 168,000 acres of grain land, 5,000 of vineyards, 9,000 of various other crops, 33,000 of natural and artificial meadow, 52,000 of fallow land, and 175,000 acres of wood and forest. The average annual value of the raw material employed in manufacturing is $1,600,000, and of goods manufactured $2,800,000. The number of hands employed is 1,706. The average daily wages are, for men 45 cents, 183 cents for women.-The town is pleasantly situated on the Seine, which divides it into 2 parts, one of which is called Bourg, and the other Chaumont. Formerly they were both enclosed by separate walls and ditches and defended by a castle, which still remains in the quartier de Chaumont. In the 12th century the town was an important military station, and the residence of the early dukes of Burgundy. Previous to the first revolution it was the capital of the Pays de la Montagne, which formed part of the government of Burgundy. In Feb. 1814, a conference was held here between the representatives of Napoleon and the allied Sovereigns. The town contains many remarkable antiquities, a hospital, primary judicial tribunal, a communal college, a small theatre, and a library with 7,500 volumes. An active trade is carried on in the products of the

country, and the industrial establishments comprise manufactories of cloth, serge, hats, Woollen and cotton yarns, beside tan yards, bark and fulling mills, and important iron works. Marshal Marmont was born there.

CHATMOSS, an extensive morass, area about 6,000 acres, lying chiefly within the parish of Eccles, Lancashire, England. A large part of it has been reclaimed and is now cultivated with profit. George Stephenson carried the Liverpool and Manchester railway over it when all other engineers considered the feat impossible.

CHÂTRE, LA, an arrondissement and town of France, department of Indre (Berry); pop. of the former in 1856, 60,146, and of the latter 4,981. The arrondissement comprises 5 cantons, and possesses 51,000 acres of grain land, 4,000 of vines, 30,000 of various culture, 36,000 of natural and artificial meadow, 63,000 of fallow land, 4,400 of chestnut plots, and 29,000 of wood and forest. The average annual value of the raw material employed in manufacturing is $600,000, and of manufactured goods $750,000. The number of hands employed is 522, and the daily wages are 34 cents for men, 184 cents for women, and 14 cents for children.-The town is pleasantly situated on the left bank of the river Indre, and contains a primary tribunal and a communal college.

CHATSWORTH, a celebrated estate in the parish of Edensor, Derbyshire, England; pop. of Edensor and Chatsworth townships, 346. A branch of the London and Northwestern railway leads from Manchester to Whaley bridge, and a coach from the latter place to Chatsworth. The place may also be reached by an omnibus from Rowley, the terminus of a branch of the Midland railway, which leaves from Ambergate. Chatsworth was among the domains given by William the Conqueror to William Peveril, his natural son. In the reign of Elizabeth, it was purchased by Sir William Cavendish, who began to build a mansion here, which after his death was completed by his widow, the countess of Shrewsbury. The present building was nearly completed by the first duke of Devonshire; a new wing has been built by the 6th duke of Devonshire (who died Jan. 18, 1858), who has greatly added to the beauty of the establishment. Chatsworth gardens are among the most famous in England. The grand conservatory is 300 feet long by 145 feet, comprising an area of about an acre, with a carriage road in the centre. The great glass house of the Victoria regia lily was erected under the direction of Mr., now Sir Joseph Paxton, the designer of the London crystal palace. The park is about 9 m. in circumference, and diversified with hill and dale. South and southwest of the mansion are remarkable water-works. The mansion is composed of 4 nearly equal sides, around an open quadrangular court. The principal works of art are sculptures by Thorwaldsen, Canova, Chantrey, and Westmacott. Chatsworth house was for 13 years the prison of Mary

Stuart, after whom some of the apartments are named. The philosopher Hobbes also spent some time here. A "Handbook of Chatsworth and Hardwick" was published in 1846, by the late duke of Devonshire.

CHATTAHOOCHEE, a river of Georgia, which rises near the N. W. corner of the state, flows S. W. to West Point, thence nearly S., forming the boundary between the lower half of that state and Alabama, and unites with the Flint to form the Appalachicola; length about 550 m.; navigable for steamboats to Columbus, 350 m. from the gulf of Mexico.

CHATTANOOGA, a flourishing post village of Hamilton co., Tenn. It is the terminus of the Nashville and Chattanooga, and of the Western and Atlantic railroads, and occupies an eligible site on the Tennessee river, which is navigable by steamboats during 8 months of the year, and by small vessels at all times. It is the shipping point for most of the surplus productions of east and of a portion of middle Tennessee, and contains a number of mills and factories, 4 newspaper offices, and a bank. Since the completion, in 1850, of the Western and Atlantic railroad, which connects Chattanooga with the principal towns of Georgia, the population of the place has increased at the rate of about 100 per month, and in 1853 was estimated at 3,500. The surrounding country is liberally supplied with water power, well wooded, and rich in coal and iron.

CHATTELS, property movable or immovable, not being freehold. Interests in land are chattels real, because savoring of the realty. A lease for years is a chattel interest. Chattels personal include all descriptions of movable property. Chattels usually pass to the executor, except some peculiar chattels, as trees, which may not be severed from the freehold, and therefore pass to the heir.

CHATTERTON, THOMAS, an English poet, born in Bristol, Nov. 20, 1752, died in London, Aug. 24, 1770. His father, who was a school teacher, died 3 months before his birth. At 5 years of age he was sent to a charity school, but was withdrawn after 1 years as an incorrigible dunce. His mother then taking him in charge attracted his curiosity by an old manuscript with illuminated capitals, from which he rapidly learned to read. He resolutely prosecuted his studies, mastered various treatises on antiquities and heraldry, and conceived the wildest dreams of ambition. Sent again to school in his 8th year to a pedant of poetry, he was almost the only pupil whom his master could not excite to poetical enthusiasm. In this school he remained 7 years, veiling beneath an appearance of melancholy and incapacity the labor of an original mind, taking no interest in his associates, and devoting himself intensely to miscellaneous reading. In his 11th year he wrote verses, the fruits of painful elaboration, and chiefly of a satirical character. In his 12th year he completed the poem of "Elinoure and Iuga." His mother and sister, who seem to have been

VOL. V.-2

the only objects of his love, were surprised at his change to unwonted vivacity, and at the brilliant hopes which he expressed as well for them as himself. In 1767 he was apprenticed to an attorney in Bristol, and though laboriously occupied in the drudgery of copying, he yet found time to continue his study of history, theology, and especially antiquities and old English phraselogy. In the next year he began his unparalleled series of literary impositions. A new bridge being finished at Bristol, he sent to a journal of the place an account of the ceremonies on opening the old bridge, which he pretended was taken from an ancient manuscript. Being questioned, he said he had found the parchments in the chest of a wealthy merchant of the reign of Edward IV., "Canynge's cofre," which, having been preserved in a room of the Redcliffe church, had in 1727 been broken open by proper authority, and some old deeds being taken from it, the remaining MSS. had been left exposed as of no value. Chatterton's father had taken a number of these parchments to serve as covers for books in his school, and among those remaining the youthful poet affirmed that he had found many writings of Mr. Canynge and his friends, especially of Thomas Rowley, an ecclesiastic and poet. He was prepared to confirm his tale by several compositions which he had already finished, and by parchments which he had stained to resemble antiques. To a pewterer named Burgum, ambitious of heraldic honors, he gave a pedigree tracing his descent from the noble Norman family of De Bergham; to the historian of Bristol he presented an account of all the churches in the city as they appeared 300 years before, which he had drawn from the writings of the "gode prieste Thomas Rowley;" to a theologian, he sent a fragment of a sermon on the Holy Spirit, as "wroten" by Rowley; to a wealthy citizen he presented a poem, the "Romaunt of the Cnyghte," written by one of his ancestors, 4 centuries before; contributed several fictitious poems to the "Town and Country Magazine" of London; and to Horace Walpole, then preparing his anecdotes of British painters, he sent an account of eminent " carvellers and peyncters" who once flourished in Bristol. He labored without a confidant, sleeping little, preferring to write by moonlight, since he believed that the presence of that planet added to his inspiration, roaming_over the country on Sundays, lying in meadows, where in a sort of trance he would contemplate old churches and edifices, and nursing in solitude a wild and vain enthusiasm and a stoical pride of talent. The literary antiquaries, who had just been at war about the authenticity of Ossian, engaged in new controversy about the productions of Chatterton. Walpole was at first deceived by them, but having submitted them to Mason and Gray, the latter pronounced them to be forgeries. The result was that Walpole ungraciously and tardily returned his MSS. to the young poet, who indignantly avenged

himself by a bitter satirical attack. Having imbibed infidel principles, and already cherishing the purpose of self-destruction, in his 17th year Chatterton was dismissed from his apprenticeship, and set off for London. He designed a literary career, but if disappointed would become a Methodist preacher, founder of a sect, or would have the pistol for his final resort. He contributed to reviews and magazines; wrote political letters, sermons for clergymen, and songs for the public gardens; was introduced to the lord mayor Beckford, formed high expectations of influence as an opposition writer, and boasted that he "would settle the nation before he had done." At the death of Beckford soon after, he is said to have gone almost frantic; he dissipated his despair in elegies, removed to wretched lodgings, continued in his misery to remit presents to his mother and sister, to whom he had before announced his splendid hopes, suffered for want of food while with a gay exterior he frequented places of public amusement, retained his unconquerable pride and vanity, confided his distress to no one, declined the invitation of his landlady to a dinner after he had been 3 days without food, spent his last penny for a dose of arsenic, and was found dead in his room surrounded by numerous manuscripts which he had torn into shreds. He was interred in the pauper burying ground of Shoe lane, and the citizens of Bristol have erected a monument to his memory. It was several years before he became an object of public interest, and the result of the discussion concerning the poems which he ascribed to Rowley and other old poets is the general belief that, however extraordinary it was for Chatterton to have written them, it was impossible for them to have been written in the 15th century. In a life of less than 18 years this misdirected genius made himself proficient in the most various studies, created the person, history, and language of an ancient poet, composed epics, tragedies, satires, elegies, ballads, and long narrative poems, and exhibited not only a facility of versification but an immature luxuriance of fancy and power of invention which promised him a high position among English poets. The early poems of Pope and Cowley are not comparable to those of Chatterton, and even the almost fabulous Mirandola was less precocious if not less great. Warton called him a "prodigy of genius;" Shelley acknowledged his "solemn agency;" Wordsworth names him "the marvellous boy, the sleepless soul that perished in his pride;" Keats dedicated "Endymion "to his memory; and Alfred de Vigny has made him the subject of one of his finest dramas, in which he regards him as the type of a suffering and unrequited genius. The personal appearance of Chatterton was proud, manly, and very prepossessing. His eyes were gray and piercing, and, as in the case of Lord Byron, one of them was more brilliant than the other.-An edition of his works, with his life, was published under the direction of

Dr. Southey and Mr. Cottle, London, 1803; and a new edition, Cambridge, 1842.

CHATTOOGA, one of the head branches of the Savannah river, rises near the S. frontier of N. Carolina, and flows S. W. along the boundary between S. Carolina and Georgia. After receiving the waters of Tallula creek, it takes the name of Tugaloo river.

CHATTOOGA, a county in the N. W. part of Georgia, area 360 sq. m., derives its name from the above river, by which it is intersected. It borders on Ala., and is finely diversified by fertile valleys and forest-clad mountains connected with the Blue Ridge. The principal summits are called Taylor's ridge, John's mountain, and Dirtseller mountain. Limestone, marble, iron, and lead are abundant. The productions in 1850 were 301,180 bushels of Indian corn, 52,986 of sweet potatoes, and 1,668 bales of cotton. There were 11 grist mills, 2 saw mills, 1 cotton factory, 4 tanneries, 19 churches, and 330 pupils attending public schools. Value of real estate in 1856, $1,092,439. Capital, Summerville. Pop. in 1852, 6,941, of whom 1,927 were slaves.

CHAUCER, GEOFFREY, an English poet, the precise dates of whose birth and death continue to be subjects of dispute. Mr. Sharon Turner suggests that the year 1340 is more likely to have been that in which Chaucer was born, than the generally received 1328. He is supposed to have died during or soon after the year 1400. The principal events of his life seem to be equally tinged with uncertainty. Leland, one of his biographers, represents him to have studied both at Cambridge and at Oxford, and at the latter place to have diligently frequented the public schools and disputations, and even there to have affected the opinions of Wycliffe in religion. Tyrwhitt doubts his having studied at either university. He appears to have been entered at the Inner Temple; but the evidence of this is stated to rest simply upon the record of one Geoffrey Chaucer having been fined 2 shillings for beating a Franciscan friar in Fleet street. Leland states that he engaged in the practice of the law, while Mr. Tyrwhitt contests the point entirely. He had undoubtedly early ingratiated himself into the friendship of persons of distinction, was a page to King Edward III., and for his good services was rewarded by that monarch in 1367 with an annuity of 20 marks. These facts are verified by public documents appended to the biography by Godwin. He appears afterward to have become gentleman of the bedchamber to the king, and in 1370 was sent abroad as a royal envoy. Two years later he was sent to Genoa, with 2 other ambassadors, to negotiate for ships for a naval force; and it appears that his success was so great as to win many proofs of royal favor. He was made on his return partial comptroller of the customs of London, and was appointed to receive daily from the butler of England a pitcher of wine. In 1877, he is referred to by