children of non-communicants. II. CHARLES, a minister of Boston, and a descendant of the preceding, born Jan. 1, 1705, died Feb. 10, 1787. He graduated at Harvard college in 1721, and was ordained pastor of the 1st church in Boston in 1727, as the colleague of Mr. Foxcroft. He was a copious writer, and published many works; among the rest, a "Complete View of the Episcopacy," being the substance of a discussion with Dr. Chandler, of New Jersey; "Seasonable Thoughts on the State of Religion in New England;" "Discourse on Enthusiasm;" "Remarks on the Bishop of Llandaff's Sermon ;" "Mystery hid from Ages, or the Salvation of all Men;" "The Benevolence of the Deity." He was for 60 years the minister of one parish. III. CHARLES, judge of the supreme court of Connecticut, born at Durham, Conn., May 30, 1747, died in New Haven, April 28, 1823. He was admitted to the bar in 1768, removed to New Haven, was made attorney for the state of Connecticut in 1776, and judge of the superior court in 1789. He retired to private life in 1793. He was not college bred, but was a good scholar and a clear-headed man. He taught jurisprudence for 40 years. IV. CHARLES, eldest son of the preceding, also a lawyer, born in New Haven, Aug. 17, 1777, died Aug. 30, 1849. He removed to Philadelphia after completing his studies, and was admitted to the bar in 1799, where he soon held a divided honor of precedence with John Sargeant and Horace Binney. The various honors of state and judiciary which were tendered to him he declined. He was a man of great erudition, especially in his profession, of winning manners and unimpeachable integrity.

CHAUNY, a town of France, department of Aisne, partly built on an island in the river Oise, which is here connected with the canal of St. Quentin, situated on the Northern railroad from Paris to Cologne, distant from the former 881 m. by rail; pop. 6,290. The town derives its principal commercial importance from the glass works of St. Gobain, which are about 7 m. distant.

CHAUSSEY, the largest of a group of small rocky islands in the English channel, opposite Granville and about 7 m. from the coast of France. It belongs to the French department of Manche, and is valuable for quarries of granite, which has been used for all the works. about the harbors of Granville and St. Malo. There is no permanent population, but it is inhabited in summer by quarrymen. It is overrun by immense numbers of rabbits. The name of Chaussey islands is sometimes applied to the whole group.

CHAUTAUQUE, the westernmost co. of N. Y., bounded on the N. W. by Lake Erie, and on the W. and S. by Pennsylvania; area, about 1,000 sq. m.; pop. in 1855, 53,380. It is well supplied with water power, and drained by Conewango creek, its tributaries, and several other smaller streams. Chautauque ridge passes through the county. Between this ridge and the lake, a

distance of from 3 to 10 miles, the surface is nearly level, and the soil very fertile. The country around the streams is also extremely productive. The productions in 1855 were 144,886 bushels of wheat, 558,507 of Indian corn, 539,763 of oats, 282,451 of potatoes, 105,672 tons of hay, 3,389,837 lbs. of butter, and 1,198,361 of cheese. There were 184 saw, 10 shingle, and 2 planing mills, 31 grist mills, 1 oil mill, 7 manufactories of agricultural implements, 3 of edged tools, 1 of musical instruments, 3 woollen factories, 7 furnaces, 25 tanneries, 3 brick yards, 298 school houses, 9 newspaper offices, and 105 churches. Iron ore, marble, and sulphur springs have been found in several places. There are springs emitting carburetted hydrogen, and the gas from one of these, near Fredonia, has been successfully employed in lighting the houses of the village. The New York and Erie railroad, and the railroad connecting Buffalo with Erie, traverse the county. By means of Conewango creek, which falls into the Alleghany, a branch of the Ohio, there is a boat navigation from the gulf of Mexico to within 10 m. of Lake Erie. Capital, Maysville.

CHAUTAUQUE LAKE, a beautiful sheet of water in the centre of Chautauque co., N. Y., 18 m. long, and from 1 to 3 m. wide. It is said to be the highest navigable water on the continent, being 1,290 feet above the Atlantic, and 730 feet above Lake Erie. Its outlet, which is navigable by small boats, opens into Alleghany river. The name is a corruption of an Indian phrase signifying a "foggy place," and was given in consequence of the mists which frequently rise from the surface of the lake.

CHAUVEAU-LAGARDE, CLAUDE FRANÇOIS, a French advocate, born at Chartres, Jan. 21, 1756, died in Paris, Feb. 29, 1841. He officiated as advocate of Miranda, Brissot, Charlotte Corday, Marie Antoinette, and Madame Elisabeth. Soon after the condemnation of the queen, he was arrested, and was not liberated until after the fall of Robespierre. He was advocate to the council of state under Napoleon, and was appointed to congratulate Louis XVIII. on his entrance into the capital. After the second restoration he devoted his talents to the defence of the proscribed.

CHAUX-DE-FOND, LA, a district in the Swiss canton of Neufchâtel; pop. 17,250. The principal place is the borough of the same name, the largest borough in Switzerland; pop. increased from 6,500 in 1834 to 12,638 in 1850, and estimated at 14,000 in 1858. It is a large scattered locality, resembling an assemblage of farm houses and hamlets, a garden plot surrounding every cottage. It is situated 19 m. from Neufchâtel, in a rugged and narrow valley of the Jura, at an elevation of about 3,000 feet above the level of the sea. Great prosperity prevails among the inhabitants, mainly owing to the manufacture of watches and of mechanical instruments, for which the place is celebrated. The origin of this industry is traced to the end of the 17th century. The total number of

gold and silver watches made in 1774 in La Chaux-de-Fond and the neighboring town, Locle, was 800. In 1836, the former town alone produced 108,295, and in 1851, 156,122; while Locle produced in the latter year 83,683. About 12,000 persons are engaged in this occupation in both places and the neighboring country; the wages vary from 80 cents to $2 a day. The inhabitants excel also in carving, jewelry, and enamelling, and in various other arts of the same kind, and at the same time in the manufacture of chemical, mathematical, and surgical instruments, and of lace. The painter Leopold Robert, and the mechanicians Droz (father and son), were born at La Chaux-de-Fond. The place is reached in 5 hours by diligence from Neufchâtel. There are 2 subterranean mills here, turned by the stream of the valley previous to its sinking underground.

CHAVES (anc. Aqua Flavia), a town of the province of Tras-os-Montes, Portugal; pop. 6,000. The fortifications which once defended it are now in ruins. It is situated on the Tamega river, here crossed by a Roman bridge of 18 arches, and has hot saline springs and baths. It has an interesting church, the burial place of Alfonso I., duke of Braganza. In 1811, after a violent conflict, Soult obtained possession of the place; and after the defeat of the Cartistas (Sept. 18, 1837), the famous convention of Chaves was signed here.

CHAVES, EMANUEL DE SILVEYRA PINTO DE FONSECA, Count of Amarante and marquis, a Portuguese general and statesman, born at Villa Real, in the province of Tras-os-Montes, died in Lisbon, March 7, 1830. He was opposed to the Portuguese liberals, and on the arrival of the duke of Angoulême in Spain in 1823, he raised the standard of revolution in Portugal in favor of Dom Miguel and absolutism.. He was proclaimed a traitor, and being defeated by Gen. Riego, he retired into Spain. There he continued to carry on his intrigues, and when Dom Miguel was proclaimed king he returned to Lisbon. He performed a conspicuous part in the continual disturbances which followed, and in the alternating successes of the contest underwent the vicissitudes of return and exile, always retreating after his numerous defeats over the Spanish frontier. To put an end to the intrigues of the Portuguese refugees with the Spanish court, the English, who were favorable to the Constitutional cause in Portugal, declared that any participation in the struggle by the Spanish authority would be regarded as a casus belli. To avoid this risk, the marquis de Chaves was sent away from the frontier. Subsequently, when Dom Miguel was acknowledged as regent, Feb. 1828, Chaves returned to Portugal and assisted the usurper in seizing the crown for himself. This accomplished, Chaves was neglected, and soon afterward retired from court, disgusted with the ingratitude of Dom Miguel; and the latter part of his life was spent in gloom and obscurity, still more saddened by partial insanity. The marchioness of Chaves was an accomplish

ed virago, and many romantic stories are told of her intrepidity and skill with the poniard and pistol.

CHAYENPOOR, or CHAYANPOOR, & fortified town of India, in the native state of Nepaul, 115 m. E. of Khatmandoo. It is an entrepot for the commerce between Thibet and Hindostan, beside having considerable trade of its own with the former country. The exports are rice, wheat, oil, ghee (a preparation of butter), sugar, spices, tobacco, cotton and woollen goods, timber, metals, and pearls; the imports are gold, silver, Chinese wares, salt, musk, and skins. The town is the capital of a district of its own name.-There is a place called CHAYANAPOOR in the same state, 50 m. S. E. of Khatmandoo.

CHAZELLES, JEAN MATTHIEU DE, a French mathematician, born in Lyons, July 24, 1657, died Jan. 16, 1710, was hydrographic professor for the galleys of Marseilles, and in a voyage to Egypt, while surveying the Mediterranean, he discovered, as he thought, that the angles of the pyramids were turned to the cardinal points.

CHEAT RIVER, in Virginia, is formed by the union of the Laurel, Glade, Shaver's, and Dry forks, which rise among the Alleghany mountains, near the N. border of Pocahontas co., and meet in Randolph co. It flows N. and N. W. through a hilly country, well adapted to grazing, and rich in coal and iron, and falls into the Monongahela at the S. W. extremity of Fayette co., Penn. It furnishes fine water power, and is navigable 40 m. above Rowlesburg, but not in the lower part of its course.

CHEBOYGAN, an extreme N. co. of the lower peninsula of Michigan, bordering on the straits of Mackinaw and Lake Huron; area, about 500 sq. m. It was organized in 1851, and has few inhabitants.

CHECO, a village of Chili, in the province of Coquimbo. In its vicinity are copper mines, which formerly yielded annually 12,000 quintals of ore, containing 70 per cent. of metal.

CHEDOTEL, a Norman navigator, the dates of whose birth and death are unknown. He was selected in 1598 to guide the expedition conducted by the marquis de La Roche into Nouvelle France. Leaving 50 men, most of them taken from the prisons of France, on Sable island, he proceeded to examine the coast of Acadia or Canada. Being prevented by stress of weather from landing at the island on his return, the men remained there for 7 years, leading the life of savages. In 1605 Chédotel went to seek for them by the direction of the parliament of Rouen, and recovered 12, all that remained, who were liberally provided for on their arrival by Henry IV.

CHEDUBA, an island in the bay of Bengal belonging to the administrative district of Ramree; area, about 250 sq. m.; pop. about 9,000, mostly Mughs. It was first occupied by the English in 1824. The channel between it and the mainland is navigable for small vessels. Copper, iron, and silver have been found in this

island, and it affords indications of extinct volcanoes. It produces petroleum oil of excellent quality, and also rice, tobacco, pepper, sugar, cotton, hemp, and indigo.

CHEESE, the curd of milk separated from the whey, and compressed into solid masses of various forms. It consists of the caseine and buttery parts of the milk, and water, as the 3 principal ingredients, and a small amount of solid saline matter or ash, partly derived from the salt used in seasoning, amounting to from 3 to 6 per cent. The water varies from 36 to 45 per cent., the caseine from 25 to 38 per cent., and the fat from 22 to 32 per cent. These differences are in part owing to the different feed of the cows, in part to the different mixtures of cream and milk made use of for obtaining the curd, and in part to the different methods and degrees of care adopted. Each district has its peculiarities in these respects, and the cheeses of each may readily be distinguished by their peculiar properties. Cheese, like the Neufchâtel, made from cream alone, is rich in the buttery part of the milk, but is a delicacy that will not keep. That made from skim milk is deficient in this ingredient, and may not contain 6 per cent. of fat; while cheese made from buttermilk must be still more deficient in it. The composition of cheese is very similar to that of flesh, the caseine representing the lean, and the buttery matter the fat portion. Caseine is an albuminous substance which coagulates in the presence of an acid, and separates from the serum or whey of the milk. To effect this separation is the first process in making cheese. Other substances produce the same effect as an acid, as a prepared pure curd recommended by Prof. Johnston, old cheese, the first extract of malt and sour leaven, and the fluids of the stomach. In the best Holland cheese, called Gouda, hydrochloric acid is used, and the cheese is said never to be infested with mites. The substance called rennet is generally made use of for this purpose; and that is preferred which is made from the stomach bags of calves or pigs that have been fed upon milk alone. These are salted, dried, and kept for some time before using. When required, the new-made brine of the rennet, sometimes prepared with spices, is added to the milk. Some portion of soluble membrane thus introduced converts the sugar of the milk into lactic acid, and this soon acts upon the caseine to curdle it, and cause its separation in a solid form. This may be completed in from half an hour to 2 hours. No more than just enough of the infusion of rennet must be added to the milk, and this must be of the proper temperature, which is from 80° to 85° F. After the coagulation the curd is broken up in the vessel. A portion of whey is sometimes drawn off and heated, and enough added to bring up the whole to 85°; and this is several times repeated, after as many very careful and thorough breakings up of the curd with instruments prepared for the purpose, the temperature, at the last, being raised

to 100°. The mixture is then allowed to settle, and the whey is entirely drawn off from the curd. This, after the whey has drained off, is enclosed in a linen cloth and put into the press vats or moulds, care being taken that its temperature has first fallen to about 60°. These are strong tubs, generally made of thick elm staves, hooped with iron, and a little deeper than the intended thickness of the cheese. The bottom is perforated with holes for the escape of the expressed whey. The mould containing the curd is then placed under the press, and after being in an hour or more is taken out and turned over, and furnished with a clean cloth in place of the one already used. Some persons at this time break up the curd in a mill and introduce the salt required, which may be about one fortieth of the weight of the curd. Others rub in the salt upon the outside as the cheese is occasionally taken out of the press and put in again. It requires this attention for 12 hours, and is then left in the press for 12 hours more, or until the press is wanted for the curd of the succeeding day. From the press the cheese is carried to the cheese room, where it is placed upon a shelf, and every day for some time is turned once, and afterward less frequently, until it is ripe for the market. Large and rich cheeses sometimes require to be bound together with strong linen cloths to prevent their bursting in the drying process. The temperature of the cheese room should be kept at about 60°, and light and currents of air should be excluded from it. While drying, cheeses are in some places dipped occasionally into hot water, which is supposed to hasten the hardening of the rind, and also the internal fermentation. Color is imparted by saffron and annatto by many makers; but the best cheeses need no such coloring matters, and as the use of the latter ingredient has, by its adulteration with red lead, rendered cheese poisonous, it had far better be left out; it has no beneficial properties whatever to recommend its continued use. A decoction of sage leaves, marigold, parsley, or other herbs, is also sometimes mixed with the milk, according to the fancy of different makers, with a view of improving the flavor or appearance of the cheese. The celebrated Westphalia cheese is said to derive its flavor from the curd being allowed to become putrid before it is compressed. -The size of cheeses varies in different places, for the most part according to the quantity of milk that can conveniently be had every 12 hours, it being often the practice to keep the milk or the cream of the evening milking, and add to the milk of the morning. Where the manufacture is carried on upon a large scale, as in Cheshire, Eng., the cheeses weigh from 100 to 200 lbs. each. For curiosities they have, in a few instances, in the United States, been made of extraordinary dimensions. From 20 to 60 lbs. are common sizes.The proportion of cheese obtained from milk is very variable, changing with the seasons and the weather, as well as with the quality of the

milk. In the summer a gallon of milk often makes a pound of cheese, while at other times 3 gallons may be required. In Cheshire a pound of cheese to each cow each day throughout the year is regarded as an average yield. In south Holland during the summer months the product from each cow is expected to be about 200 lbs. of skimmed milk cheese and 80 lbs. of butter; or each week 10 lbs. of cheese and 4 to 7 of but ter. Of whole milk cheese some obtain as much as 3 or 4 lbs. a day.-Some of the most famous varieties of cheese are as follows: The Parmesan, made in the richest part of the Milanese territory, is prepared wholly from skim milk, and yet all its pores are filled with an oily substance, so that it has been supposed that some oil was mixed with the curd; but it is now generally believed that its excellent qualities are owing to the rich grass with which the cows are fed, as they are kept housed. The cheeses sometimes weigh 180 lbs., a single one of this size requiring the milk of 100 cows. Gruyère cheese is a Swiss variety, made in the cantons of the Alps. The small farmers send their cows during the summer to the alp or common pasture; the milk of all is turned into one common stock, and each receives at the end of the season his proportionate share of the profits. The Cheshire cheese is made in the English county of this name to the extent of about 14,000 tons annually. Stilton is the highest priced cheese; it is made principally in Leicestershire. The cream of the night's milking is added to the whole milk of the morning and thoroughly incorporated with it, particular attention being paid to the temperature of the mixture. These cheeses do not exceed 12 lbs. in weight, but they require 2 years to mature. Suffolk is a skim-milk cheese of 25 or 30 lbs. weight each, and keeps better than any other variety.

Not

withstanding the large dairy produce of some of the counties of Great Britain, cheese was imported from the United States, and also from Holland, to the extent of 19,064 tons in 1855.Cheese is made of the milk of goats and sheep, as well as of that of cows, and both kinds are said to be of excellent quality. The former kind is much esteemed at Mont d'Or, in central France, where particular attention is paid to the keeping and feed of the goats. As caseine is identical with the albuminous matter of grain and vegetables, these may be substituted for milk in its manufacture. The Chinese have indeed prepared cheese from remote periods from the pea and bean. In Thuringia and Saxony cheese is made from potatoes. To 5 lbs. of the mashed boiled potato, thoroughly kneaded, 1 lb. of sour milk is added, and a proper amount of salt; the proportions, however, vary in the different qualities. The mixture is left 8 or 4 days, and is then kneaded again and dried in the shade in little baskets. It continues to improve by age. In dry situations and well-closed vessels this cheese keeps fresh for a number of years, and is not liable to engender worins.-Cheese is sometimes recom

mended as an aid to digestion, and some kinds, in which the process of decay has commenced, may possess this property by inducing decomposition in the food that has been taken, acting as sour leaven does when incorporated with dough. But fresh cheese is only so much more food added to that already in the stomach. It is nearly insoluble in water, and requires age to render it soluble and easily digested, or to return it to the wholesome condition in which its elements existed in the milk. When quite old it has been recommended as a remedy for constipation, especially that caused in children by eating cherries and other unripe fruits.-The imports of cheese into the United States during the year ending June 30, 1857, were:

cwt. Entered for home consumption in the respective periods, 196,358 cwt. and 200,248 cwt. The exports of foreign cheese during the same period of 1858 were 3,430 cwt., and of English cheese 11,121 cwt., total 14,551 ewt.; and in the preceding year, foreign cheese, 6,062 cwt., and English cheese, 15,933 cwt.; total, 21,995 cwt. The value of the imports into France in 1856 was $1,500,000. We have no account of the exports; in previous years they were to the extent of about $400,000. The value of the cheese taken for home consumption in Belgium in 1856 was $220,000, and the exports of Belgian cheese amounted to $100,000. The most active trade in cheese is carried on in Holland, Holstein, Styria, Tyrol, Bohemia, Hungary, Switzerland, Greece, Italy, England, and the United States.

CHEESHAHTEAUMUCK, CALEB, an Indian graduate of Harvard college (1665), born in 1646, died at Charlestown, Mass., in 1666. He was the only Indian who ever graduated from that college.

CHEEVER, EZEKIEL, the patriarch of New England schoolmasters, born in London, the son of a linen draper, Jan. 25, 1615, died in Boston, Aug. 21, 1708. The pure Latinity of some essays and verses written by him in 1631, and which are still extant among his manuscripts, furnishes conclusive evidence that he had enjoyed superior opportunities of classical training. He came to America in 1637, landing at Boston, but in the following year accompanied his friends Davenport and Eaton to Quinnipiac, where he assisted them in founding the colony of New Haven. His name appears on the plantation covenant in June, 1639. He was chosen one of the deacons of the church soon after its organization, occasionally officiating as a preacher. He taught a public school there, from the foundation of the colony in 1638 until 1650, beginning with their common or free school, and on the organization of a school of higher grade, taking charge of that. He also represented the town in the general assembly in 1646. In 1650 he removed to Ipswich, Mass., and took charge of the grammar school there, in which he remained for 11 years. In 1661 he removed to Charlestown, where a town free school had been established and endowed by certain rents and the products of fisheries, together with a fixed annual tax on the property of the town. There he remained 9 years, teaching with great success. In 1670 he was called to Boston to take charge of the free school, now known as the Latin school. In this invitation the governor, magistrates, clergymen, and selectmen of Boston united. His salary was to be £60 per annum from the town treasury, the income of some property belonging to the school, and the use of the school house rent free. He remained at the head of this school for 38 years, and died at the age of 94, "retaining," says Cotton Mather, who preached his funeral sermon, "his abilities, in an unusual degree, to the very last, his intellectual force as little abated as his nat

ural."

While teaching at New Haven Mr. Cheever prepared the "Accidence, a short Introduction to the Latin Tongue," which in 1785 had run through 20 editions, and was for more than a century the hand-book of the Latin scholars of New England. He was also the author of a little treatise entitled "Scripture Prophecies Explained, in three short Essays."

CHEEVER, GEORGE BARRELL, D.D., an Ame rican clergyman and author, born at Hallowell, Me., in 1807. He graduated at Bowdoin college in 1825, at the Andover theological seminary in 1830, and was ordained pastor of the Howard street Congregational church at Salem, Mass., in 1832. While at Andover and Salem he contributed in prose and verse, on literary and theological topics, to the "North American Review," "Biblical Repository," and other periodicals. He engaged in the Unitarian controversy, in connection with which he wrote a defence of the orthodoxy of Cudworth. Espousing the temperance cause, he published in a Salem newspaper, in 1835, a dream entitled "Deacon Giles's Distillery," in which the liquors were graphically characterized as containing demons in an inferno. Deacon Giles was a veritable person, and the publication resulted in a riotous attack upon Mr. Cheever in the street, his trial and conviction for libel, and his imprisonment for 30 days in the Salem jail. He resigned his pastorate in the next summer, and passed the following 24 years in Europe and the Levant, contributing letters to the " New York Observer." On his return in 1839 he became pastor of the Allen street Presbyterian church, in the city of New York. He soon after delivered to crowded audiences his lectures on the "Pilgrim's Progress," and on "Hierarchical Despotism," the latter being in answer to a discourse of the Rev. Dr. Hughes, the Roman Catholic bishop of New York. In 1843, in three public debates with J. L. O'Sullivan, Esq., in the Broadway tabernacle, he maintained the argument for capital punishment. He went again to Europe in 1844, as corresponding editor of the "New York Evangelist," of which journal he was principal editor for a year after his return, in 1845. In 1846 he was installed over the new Congregational church of the Puritans, in New York city, a church organized with the view of securing his ministrations, and of which he has remained the pastor.

He is distinguished as an energetic preacher, and for his Puritanic application of biblical principles to human conduct and institutions. Among the topics which he has treated in the pulpit are intemperance, Sabbath-breaking by railroad corporations and government orders, the attempted ejection of the Bible from public schools, the Mexican war, the fugitive slave law, the Dred Scott decision, and the system of American slavery. Since the establishment of the "New York Independent" in 1848, Dr. Cheever has been a weekly contributor to it of religious, literary, critical, and political articles. His later contributions to the "Bibliotheca Sacra" are of a more scholarly and elaborate character.