mention of chimneys. Among the most ancient ruins no traces of them are found, nor have any been discovered in Herculaneum, though charcoal has been met with in some of the apartments. The mode of warming rooms appears to have been to place upon the floor a portable pan or furnace containing live coals. Hence the propriety of the observation of the poet Sosipater, that one qualification of a perfect cook was the art of determining which way the wind blows; and also of the advice of Vitruvius, that there should be only plain cornices in rooms where there are to be fires and lights, as more elaborate ornaments would soon be filled with soot. Anacharsis, the Scythian, speaks of the Greeks keeping the smoke without, and bringing only fire into their houses; and Heliogabalus is said by Lampridius to have burned in the stoves spices and costly perfumes instead of wood. The Persians, who still retain some of the most ancient customs, make their fires, as stated by De la Valle, in a round or square hole in the earth floor of their apartments. An iron vessel fills this hole, and contains the fuel. Over it is placed a low table, covered with a thick quilted cloth, reaching to the floor. By this contrivance the heat is said to be condensed so as to warm the whole apartment; and those who sit upon cushions near the fire may extend their feet under the cover, or leaving their seat they may creep entirely under it. The heat is described as being exceedingly agreeable, and not causing uneasiness to the head, though no provision is made for conveying away the gaseous products of combustion. A pipe for blowing the fire with the mouth is made to project up from the floor. To such expedients were the most refined nations of antiquity probably reduced in their ignorance of the simple chimney flue; a fact which would seem quite irreconcilable with the progress they had made in many of the arts dependent more or less upon the use of fires, were it not that these were perhaps less essential to them than to the inhabitants of more northern latitudes. The tendency of heated air to ascend must have been almost as familiar to them as that of water to flow down inclined planes, and to us it would seem to require not much more ingenuity to devise pipes for convey ing the former away, than to contrive aqueducts which to this day are regarded as extraordinary works of art. It was the every-day need of supplies of pure water, and not of artificial warmth, which alone made the difference. This tendency of warm air to form ascending currents comes from its greater proportional lightness as it is expanded by heat and made to occupy a greater space. Deep mines in cold countries well exemplify the working of this principle. In the winter season the deep shafts are perfect chimneys of ventilation. The air enters the mines through the lowest openings into them, and mixing with the smoke of the candles and of the gunpowder blasts, acquires from these, and from the warmer But underground temperature, a greater heat than that of the air above. Expanding in bulk, it floats upward, establishing an ascending current, which is renewed by succeeding portions of air, and which rapidly sweeps off the gaseous impurities of the mine. But as the weather becomes warm, and the air within and without attains the same temperature, no such current is formed, and the smoke, settling in a cloud below, slowly finds its way out by those passages through which at other times the fresh air is wont to flow in. Artificial means of ventilation then become necessary. A fire may be employed to heat the air in the mine, the smoke from it being carried up a smoke flue; or (to avoid the expense of a metallic pipe) the fire is often made at the top of the shaft, and fed with air only through a wooden pipe or canvas bag, and thus a circulation is established, by which the workings are ventilated. Mechanical means are also resorted to of displacing the foul air by a fan blower or other apparatus, exhausting and driving it out, or driving down pure air to circulate among and improve it. The ascensional power of a column of heated air is the dif ference between its weight and that of an outside column of the same height. It is hence increased by adding to the height of the chimney, as well as by increasing the temperature. the chimney may be so high, especially when exposed in cold situations, that the heat taken up below may be dispersed before the air reaches the top. In this case increased height adds nothing to the draught, but diminishes it. Short chimneys may be made more effectual by increasing the temperature, and in locomotives this is done by the introduction of a jet of hot steam. Calculations have been made to estimate the ascending force of air in chimneys at any given increase of temperature over the external air; but these are affected by many sources of error, which render the results only approximate. Air, in its flow through confined channels, is subject to similar laws with water or any other fluid conveyed in pipes. Over rough surfaces it is retarded by increased friction, and in small flues it experiences this resistance more than in large ones of the same construction in the inverse proportion of the diameters of the flues. Then again, though it is ascertained that the expansion of air between the boiling and freezing points is .8665 of its bulk at the lower temperature, it is not certain that this rate continues to much higher degrees. And lastly, in order to apply these calculations, it is necessary to know the mean temperature of the column of air in a chimney, and this cannot be determined with accuracy. It may be approximated by finding the degree of heat a litthe above the lower entrance into the flue, and that at the top, and taking half of their sum. Montgolfier, the inventor of balloons, first gave attention to this subject, and proposed the following method of determining the force of the draught, or the velocity of the current, which is still considered as simple and accurate as the case ad mits of. It is the same velocity which a falling body would acquire in passing the distance equal to the difference in height between two equal columns of air at the different temperatures. As the velocity of a heavy falling body is ascertained at any period of its descent by multiplying the square root of the number of feet it has fallen by 8, which gives its rate per second of time, we have the data for applying to the calculations for determining the velocity of the current. Suppose the height of the chimney to be 70 feet, and the difference of temperature of the two columns to be 30°, we have the expansion of the heated column= 70x.0661 (this decimal representing of the expansion due to a difference of 180° of temperature). The difference in the height of the two columns is then 4.627 feet, and the square root of this (2.15), being multiplied by 8, gives 17.2 feet per second as the velocity of the draught. -In actual use chimneys are far from operating with the regularity which any attempt at calculating their effect would seem to imply. From numerous causes the smoke, which should go up, comes down with a mysterious pertinacity, and the chimney, instead of adding to the domestic comfort, proves as troublesome as if some capricious spirit had taken possession of it, and controlled its operations. None but experts mysteriously skilled are capable of exorcising this spirit, or prescribing for the ills of the chimney. They form a class of chimney doctors, with whom quackery is probably more prevalent than with the other classes which bear this professional name. And indeed, so little are the principles of chimneys understood, that it is a rare thing to find builders who can be sure that the chimneys they construct will not smoke; and none certainly have ever been known to admit beforehand that theirs would. The causes for this evil may be imperfections in the flue, as too contracted dimensions, or too rough an inner surface, or openings into it which admit cold air and chill it, as may also occur from too large an opening at the fireplace; or, presenting too large and exposed an aperture at the top, the wind may strike down into it, and throw back the column of smoke. This is particularly likely to occur when the top of the chimney is below the level of some neighboring house, hill, or high trees, from which the wind may be reflected down into the chimney, or over which it may fall, and thus beat down the smoke. An inadequate admission of air into the room in which is the fireplace will cause a chimney to smoke, a circulating current being thus as effectually prevented as if the flue itself were in great part obstructed. The opening of a door or window often shows the cause of this trouble by at once removing it. When two chimney flues come down into one room, or into two rooms which connect by an open passage, the burning of a fire in one flue may establish an upward current, which is supplied with air drawn down the other. Any attempts to make the second chim ney draw could only succeed by closing the connection between them, or supplying the first with the air it requires from some other source. When a chimney smokes in consequence of the wind beating down, the remedy is to increase the height, or else to draw in the flue at the top. The effect of the latter change is to admit a smaller quantity of air, and this is dispersed through the large body in the flue without being felt at the base. But if this should not prove effectual, a similar contraction in the throat of the fireplace also may accomplish the desired end. The late Mr. A. J. Downing, who gave particular attention to all subjects connected with house architecture, speaks of this contraction as the principle of building chimneys to draw well. The back of the fireplace, in his plan, is made sloping forward as it rises from the hearth. When nearly as high as the breast of the fireplace (that is, the top of the open space in front), the back is built vertically for about a foot, passing thus at least 6 inches higher than the bottom of the breast. It then makes a square jog back to the posterior wall of the flue. This flat shoulder is deemed essential, chimneys having been made to smoke when the right angle was filled in with mortar. The under edge of the mantel or breast next the flue should always be rounded off, the effect of this being to cause the air passing into the flue from the room to mix gently with the smoke without causing any sudden disturbance. For chimneys of moderate size or depth at the throat, the distance from the mantel to the back wall should be about 4 inches, and the length of the opening such that, multiplied by its depth, the area will be equal to that of the flue above. For the top of the chimney in very windy or exposed situations, the rule is to contract the flue to a third less than its area below. Ordinarily the drawing in of a 12 inch square flue to 10 inches is sufficient, and where there is no likelihood of downward currents the contraction at the throat may answer. The worst chimneys usually draw well when a stove is substituted for the fireplace, and the pipe is led into the chimney. The effect is that of greatly contracting the flue. The contraction at the top is frequently made by adding an ornamental piece called a chimney top, which also improves the draught by increasing the height. But a great variety of these have been contrived with a view more to usefulness than to ornament, and being made of sheet iron, with grotesque shapes designed by the arrangement of the slopes of their sides to turn the wind away from the flue, their effect upon the most prominent points of our dwellings is by no means pleasing to the eye, while their endless diversity implies that the real cure of smoky chimneys is not yet generally understood.-Tall chimneys are built to convey away the noxious fumes from chemical and manufacturing establishments, and relieve the neighborhood of the nuisance these would otherwise occasion. Their long and frequently graceful shafts would in ancient times have entitled these structures to be regarded as monuments worthy of receiving the name of some distinguished conqueror; but their present homely use really serves to conceal from most of us the beauties they possess. They are built up from a solid base with side flues leading into the central cavity. The size of this cavity should, as in the chimneys of dwelling houses, be of rather larger area than the sum of that of the flues which lead into it. In large stacks it varies from 3 feet in diameter, or 3 feet square, to 6 feet, contracting gradually toward the top. They are constructed with a brick lining, so laid as to leave an air space between it and the outer wall, the effect of this being to check the rapid dispersion of the warmth of the vapors. A chimney of this kind has been erected at Manchester, England, 415 feet high, 25 feet square at the base, and 9 feet at the top. It required to build it 4,000,000 bricks. At the Thomas iron works, on the Lehigh river in Pennsylvania, are cylindrical chimneys of a thin boilerplate iron casing, lined with fire brick; the casing being 7 feet in diameter, and the fire brick a foot long, made and bevelled to fit the circle, the internal diameter is 5 feet. These chimneys, for their capacity, are light, substantial, and elegant; but they are not built with reference to retaining the heat of the vapors, which is here no object. The iron casing may serve as a most efficient lightning conductor if connected with the ground by other conductors. CHIMPANZEE (simia troglodytes, Blum., or troglodytes niger, Geoff.), the form of the four-handed animals which comes the nearest to man; so much so, indeed, that Linnæus places it under the genus homo, with the epithet troglodytes to distinguish it from man. Bory de St. Vincent has struggled hard to retain the chimpanzee in the same genus as man, but the question is entirely set at rest by Cuvier, Blumenbach, and Owen, who have proved many perfect and permanent osteological distinctions; and, among others, especially the totally different conformation of the heel in the human being, which shows that the posterior hand of the chimpanzee could never, by any length of time or process of modification, by use or development, be converted into the human foot. From the orang outang the chinpanzee differs, in having the cranium broader in proportion to the face; in 8 more minute distinctions as to the characteristics of the skull; in the smaller size of the incisor and canine teeth, and inferior development of the jaws, giving it a more human and less beast-like head; in the difference of size in the vertebræ, the cervical being smaller and the lumbar larger in the chimpanzee; in the possession of additional dorsal vertebræ, corresponding to a second pair of ribs; in the comparative shortness of the forearm and hand; in the greater proportional length of the femur and tibia, and the less proportional length of the foot; and in many other points in the structure of the chest, loins, hands, nail, and fingers, extending in all to 23 points of difference in the osteological structure of the animals; of which 23 points, 20 in the chimpanzee have a greater similarity than in the orang to the same points in the human being, and 3 in the orang have a greater similarity to those of man than the same in the chimpanzee. Owen well observes, that from these considerations, and especially from the conformation of the jaws and dental system, which in the orang are scarcely inferior to those of the lion, and greatly resemble those of the fiercer and more terrible carnivora, the chimpanzee ought to rank above the orang, not below it, as it does in the Rigne ani mal of Cuvier. Linnæus, as has been ob served, gave to the chimpanzee that superiority, but erred in placing it too high, and including it in the same genus with man. The impor tance of these distinctions is not easily understood or appreciated from the reading ary, even the most lucid description, while they are seen in a moment by a glance at the skele tons of the animals, or at drawings of them. The chimpanzees are natives of Africa only, and are found principally on the Congo and Guinea coasts, and in Gaboon. The length of the arms is very great, reaching below the knees by the whole extent of the fingers. The legs have a sort of calf, but it differs from that of the human being in that it continues of equal thickness nearly to the heel. The hand differs from that of the human being in having the thumb much the smallest of the fingers; the foot is properly a hand, appended to the tarsus with a thumb extremely long, powerful, and capable of great extension. The chimpanzee walks more frequently erect on its feet than the other species, but stands with the feet much wider apart than man, and goes with the knees much more bent. It is a hideous and fearful caricature of the human race, when alive; its structural differences not being nearly so distinguishable when the skeleton is clothed with the muscular flesh and covered with the hairy skin, as when it is seen denuded.-Beside the species described of this formidable animal, the troglodytes niger, or black chimpanzee several specimens of which have been exhibited alive in England, at the zoological gardens and elsewhere, there is the troglodytes gorilla great or gorilla chimpanzee, which, so far as is known, has never been seen by a white man, nor has any perfect skeleton been obtained, although portions sufficient to establish the animal as distinct from the black species have been submitted to scientific examination, and prove it to differ from any other of the quadrumana. The troglodytes gorilla is also a native of the Gaboon country.-The habits of the chimpanzees are very imperfectly known; what is collected concerning them being little more than the reports of the negroes, who, always addicted to the marvellous, are further possessed by a dread of these animals, at once physical and superstitious. Whenever they succeed in killing one of these, their terrific enemies, they are known to make a "fetish" of the cranium. Cuvier states that "the chimpanzees live in troops, construct themselves huts of leaves, arm themselves with sticks and stones, and employ these weapons to drive man and the elephant from their dwellings." He also repeats the story of their pursuit of the negresses, and carrying them off into the woods. This story is still credited in the country where they are found. Speaking of Capt. Payne, Dr. Traill, in his interesting paper in the "Wernerian Transactions," says: "The natives of Gaboon informed him that this species attains the height of 5 or 6 feet; that it is a formidable antagonist to the elephant; and that several of them will not scruple to attack the lion and other beasts of prey with clubs and stones. It is dangerous for solitary individuals to travel through the woods haunted by the orang, and instances were related to Capt. Payne of negro girls being carried off by this animal, who have sometimes escaped to human society after having been for years detained by their ravishers in a frightful captivity. These reports confirm the narratives of the early voyagers, who have often been suspected of exaggeration; and similar facts have been recently stated very circumstantially, by gentlemen who have lived in western Africa." There being two species of the chimpanzee ascertained to exist, the larger of which has never been brought to Europe, it is probable that the habits of the two have been confounded. No reliance whatever is to be placed on the accounts of the gentleness, docility, and aptitude at acquiring human habits, of these animals, when in captivity. Such anecdotes always relate to animals taken extremely young, and rendered timid and docile by the handling of the sailors, who make pets of them. As they become old they become sullen, savage, and ferocious, and there is reason to believe that there is no animal more brutally and irreclaimably vicious than one of the old males of any of these large anthropomorphous apes, whether they be orangs, gibbons, or chimpanzees. CHINA (Chinese, Tsin, Tai-tsing). I. A vast empire in eastern Asia, comprising, beside China proper, the vassal states and territories of Mantchooria, Mongolia, Soongaria and Little Bokhara, Thibet, and the territory of the Tartars of Kokan. Merely nominal dependencies, not included in the empire, are the peninsula of Corea, the kingdoms of Anam, Siam, Burmah, Nepaul, and Bootan, and the Loo Choo islands. Extending over 741 degrees of longitude (from the western bend of the Bolor Tagh in long. 70° E. to Cape Patience on the island of Saghalien, long. 144° 30′ E.), and 38 degrees of latitude (from the bay of Yulin, island of Hai-nan, in lat. 18° 10' N., to the Russian frontier, lat. 56° 10' N.), this empire covers an area of 5,300,000 sq. m. according to McCulloch, or 5,426,000 according to Balbi, or 5,859,564 according to Berghaus; but from this some 300,000 sq. m. must be deducted in consequence of the cession by treaty to Russis of the Amoor country (May, 1858). The VOL. V.-7 external frontier of the whole empire is 12,550 m. long; the coast line, from the mouth of the Amoor to Hai-nan, 3,350 m. This colossal empire comprises nearly of the habitable part of the globe, and, next to Russia, is the largest which has existed on earth, its area being double that of the United States. Its population may be stated approximatively at 500,000,000. The boundaries are: N. E. the Amoor river; N. the Great and Little Altai mountains (Siberia); W. the Kirgheez country and Tartary; S. W. Hindostan; S. Nepaul, Bootan, Burmah, Anam, or Cochin China; E. the Pa cific ocean (China sea, Eastern sea, Yellow sea, sea of Japan). The different states and provinces, beside China proper, will be treated of in separate articles. II. CHINA PROPER, by its inhabitants called Chung-kue (middle kingdom, a term nearly equivalent to the orbis ter rarum of ancient Rome), or Chung-hoa (central flower), Tshu-ku (centre of the earth), Thian-shan (celestial empire); by the Buddhists, Shin-ton; by the Mohammedans, Thung-to; by the Russians and the inhabitants of northern Asia, Ketan, Kitaï, or Katai (whence the ancient name Cathay); by the Anamese, Sina; by the Persians, Chin; by the Thibetans, Yulbu. It extends from long. 96° to 123° E., and from lat. 18° to 43° N., and is bounded N. E. and N. by Mantchooria and Mongolia, from which it is separated by the great wall; E. by the ocean; S. by Cochin China, or Anam, and Burmah; W. by Thibet and Chinese Tartary. Its area is estimated by Sir George Staunton, at 1,500,000 sq. m., inclusive of the province of Leao-tong, which lies beyond the great wall, and 1,297,999 sq. m. exclusive of it; at 1,348,870 sq. m. by McCulloch; at 1,482,091 by Malte Brun; and at 2,000,000 (if the full area of the provinces of Kan-su and Chi-li is included) by Wells Williams. Thus China proper is about 7 times the size of France, or nearly half as large as all Europe, which is 3,650,000 sq. m. Its population was in 1812, 362,447,183, according to the general statistics of the empire, afterward estimated by Morrison at 367,659,897, in 1852 at 396,000,000; in 1858 estimated at 360,279,897 only by G. W. Cooke, but at 410,000,000 by the writer of the article on China in Pierer's Universal Lexikon. Although founded upon the official census tables of China, these various statements leave much room for doubt as to their accuracy; yet that objection which is based upon the improbability of so large a population finding room on the area of the 18 provinces has no great force; for even if the highest of the foregoing estimates be accurate, the average population to the sq. m. would be a little over 300, while that of Belgium is 321, of Lombardy 260, of Ireland 249, of England and Wales 241, of France 223. It is true that the average population in some provinces of China greatly exceeds the general average. Thus, if Mr. Cooke's estimate is admitted as more nearly correct than the others, the general average would be 268 to the sq. m., while the average in the province of Kiang-su is 850, in Ngan-hoei 705, in Che-kiang 671, in Chi-li 475, in Shan-tung 444, in Quang-tung 241, in Quang-si 93, in Koei-chu 82, and in Yunnan 51.-The empire is divided into 18 provinces, viz.: 28,087,171 24,000,000 154,008 (10,207,256 15,000,000 Kan-su Chi-li.. Pe-king 58,949 92,961 55,268 27,990,874 80,000,000 15,193,125 16,000,000 Hang-chau. 89,150 26,256,784 28,000,000 72,176 80,426,999 32,000,000 27,870,098 28,000,000 144,770 Yun-dan Total 18,652,507 20,000,000 21,435,678 22,000,000 53,480 14,777,410 18,000,000 1,297,999 867,659,897 897,000,000 NOTE. The discrepancy between the above total from Pierer's Lexikon, and the general estimate given in the same work, is not accounted for. natural facilities of inland navigation, and the people themselves consider that portion of geography relating to their rivers as the most interesting. There are 2 large river systemsthat of the Hoang-ho, or Yellow river, and of the Yang-tse-kiang, or Blue river. The Hoangho rises in lat. 351° N., and long. 96° E. Its mouth is 1,290 m. from its source, but by numerous windings the course is prolonged to nearly double that distance. The area of its basin is estimated at 700,000 sq. m. It is but little used for navigation, because of its impetuous current But few important tributaries empty into the Yellow river (Wei and Lu in Shen-si, Yuei-ho, 28,958.765 31,000,000 Hoei-ho, Fuen-ho, &c.). The Yang-tse-kiang (son of the ocean) is far more tranquil and useful than its rival. It is formed by the confluence of the Kin-sha-kiang (Gold-sand river) and Ya-long-kiang (White river). This majestic stream, with a length of 2,200 miles (or nearly 3,000 according to Mr. Williams), and a breadth, above Nan-king, of 3 to 4 miles, is the main artery of the empire. Tens of thousan's of boats and barges continually crowd it. Its principal tributaries are the Kan-kiang, which empties through the Po-yang lake, the Siang and Yuen, on the S.; the IIan-kiang and Kialing, on the N. The country lying between the Yang-tse-kiang and the Hoang-ho is by its fertility, general prosperity, and the high state of education of its inhabitants, the most impor tant and influential part of the empire. The Yang-tse-kiang is navigable for the largest ships more than 200 m. from its mouth, and for boats more than 1,700 m. The tides are perceptible 400 m. to Kiu-kiang. The whole basin of the river, estimated at 750,000 sq. m., is accessible by the subsidiary streams. Independent of these 2 great river systems, there are those of the Pei-ho or White river in the N., which rises in Tartary, passes the capital Pe-king, receives the Yu-ho, and falls into the Yellow sea; and of the Chu-kiang, which, rising E. of Yunnan, drains, with its tributaries, a region of nearly 200,000 sq. m., and falls into the China sea near Canton, after a course of 700 r. The lakes of China are comparatively few and small. The largest are the Po-yang in Kiangsi, 90 m. long and about 20 in breadth, surrounded by lofty granite mountains, and enclosing many beautiful and populous islets; the Tun-ting in Hu-nan, 300 m. in circumference, both connected with the Yang-tse-kiang; the great lake near Su-chau-fu, the Tai-hu, and the Hong-tse, the only lake of any size connected with the Ioang-ho.-From Hai-nan to the mouth of the Yang-tse-kiang the coast of China is lined with islands and rocky islets; from that point N. to Leao-tong the shores are low and the coast rendered dangerous to vessels by shouls There are but few good harbors between the mouths of the Yang-tse-kiang and the Hoang-ho. S. of Kitto point, near Ning-po, as far down as Hong Kong, numerous small bays afford a safe refuge for vessels, but there also the aspect of the shore, consisting of barren clay-colored About of the empire (415,000 sq. m. according to Berghaus, 430,000 sq. m. according to Ritter) is a level, fertile, highly cultivated country, while are studded with mountains, which, rising higher and higher toward the interior, ultimately tower up in the gigantic glaciers of the Yun-ling. The alpine mountains of the Yunling, a prolongation of the Himalaya, commence in the S. W. corner between the gulf of Tonquin and the Si-kiang; thence they send their main chain (Nan-ling) eastward, where, dividing the provinces of Koei-chu and Quang-si, it forms the all but inaccessible country of the aboriginal Miao-tse. Again, they run along the N. frontier of Quang-tung (Mei-ling) to long. 116° E., thence in a N. N. E. direction, separating Kiangsi from Fo-kien, and terminating in Chekiang on the sea, opposite Chu-san. The Peling run along lat. 34° N. from Thibet across Shen-si into Ho-nan, dividing the basins of the Hoang-ho and Yang-tse-kiang. Between the great bend of the Hoang-ho and the imperial canal the parallel chains of Wa-shan, Ki-ling, Ma-ling, Lu-yen-shan, and Gar-gu-shan run from N. E. to S. W. West of the Hoang-ho the Kinghong-shan and the Chag-an-to-la-chai run in the same direction. A great mountain system (Ki-lian-shan, A-la-shan, Shan-gar-jan), the highest peaks of which rise 15,000 feet above the level of the ocean, divides Mongolia from China. An insulated chain of naked granite hills (Tai-shan) traverses the province of Shantung. Most of these mountains rest upon a basis of granite, but the surface generally belongs to the lime and sandstone formation.-The rivers of China, says Mr. Williams, are her glory, and no country can compare with her for |