put more confidence in the Scriptural narrative than in any tradition, however ancient.

But there is in Palestine another kind of tradition with which the foreign monks have nothing to do, and of which they appear to be entirely ignorant. It is "the preservation of the ancient names of places among the common people." Of this former travelers have made no use, on account of their ignorance of the Arabic, and their consequent inability to hold any intercourse with the native population, except by means of illiterate interpreters. In view of these circumstances, Dr. Robinson states that he early adopted two general principles by which to govern himself in all his investigations. The first was to avoid, as far as possible, all contact with the monks, to examine for himself with the Scriptures in his hands, and to apply for information only to the Arab population. The second was to leave the beaten track, and to direct his journeys and researches into those portions of the land which had been least visited. It was by carrying out these principles that he was able to make new discoveries on the ground which had been trodden by thousands of pilgrims, tourists, and scientific travelers. Proceeding in this way, he soon found out that there was "much land to be possessed," and that with requisite care and diligence he would be able to establish the sites of many places, important in Scripture geography. More than three hundred pages of the volumes before us are devoted to the points of interest connected with Jerusalem. It is, of course, impossible for us to enter at large into these historical and topographical details; we will, however, notice some of the most interesting researches and discoveries.

The modern city of Jerusalem occupies a portion of the site of the ancient; but in appearance how different from that city of David which was "the joy of the whole earth!" It is almost literally true that "from the daughter of Zion all her beauty is departed." The circumference of the present city, according to the measurements of Dr. Robinson, is less than two and a half English miles; while Josephus states, that in his day it was nearly four and a half. Thus we see that a large portion of the ancient city must have been without the present walls. It seems to have been hardly a matter of question among travelers, but that the area of the great mosk of Omar occupies in part, or in whole, the site of the ancient temple: and yet how far there exist traces which may serve to show a connection between the ancient and modern precincts, and establish their identity, is a point which, as yet, has never been fully discussed. But the discoveries and researches of Dr. Robinson have sufficiently proved their identity. The walls which surround the inclosure

of the mosk appear to be of different ages. A very important portion of the western wall is unquestionably of great antiquity, and Dr. Robinson thinks it can be referred back to the days of Solomon or his successors, who, according to Josephus, here built up walls "immovable for all time." On the south-west corner of the area of the great mosk, Dr. Robinson discovered the remains of an immense arch, which must have belonged to the bridge over the valley of the Tyropocon, which led from this part of the temple to the Xystus on Mount Zion. The existence of the remains of this arch seems to remove all doubt as to the identity of this portion of the inclosure of the mosk with that of the ancient temple. A difficulty, however, arises in reconciling the length and breadth of this area with the accounts which have come down to us from antiquity. Josephus and the Talmud unite in saying that the temple area was a square, but from Dr. Robinson's measurements the length is five hundred and seventy-three feet more than the breadth. This discrepancy is so great that it can be accounted for only by supposing that the present inclosure has been enlarged on the north, probably by including within its walls the area of the ancient fortress of Antonia.

One of the most important points of the researches around Jerusalem was the discovery of the exact situation of the tower of Hippicus. Its importance in a topographical respect arises from the fact, that Josephus takes it as the starting point in his description of the city walls. On the north-west part of Zion, a little south of the Yâfa gate, lies the citadel of modern Jerusalem. The lower part of the north-eastern tower of this citadel, to the height of forty feet, bears strong marks of antiquity. Its external appearance, and its situation with respect to Zion and the ancient temple, led Dr. Robinson to conclude that this was the tower of Hippicus, erected by Herod, and which Josephus informs us Titus left standing when he destroyed the city.

There has been, for some time, a discussion as to the identity of the site of the church of the holy sepulchre, with the place of our Lord's crucifixion and burial. Of the different travelers who have visited and examined the spot, some have rejected, while others have supported the common tradition. A true estimate of this long-agitated question must depend upon two circumstances. As there can be no doubt but that Golgotha and the sepulchre lay outside of the ancient city walls, it must first be shown that the present site may also anciently have been without the walls. Or should this in itself appear impossible, it must then be shown that there were in the fourth century, the time when the present site

was fixed upon, historical or traditional grounds for this, strong enough to counterbalance such an apparent impossibility. Now Dr. Robinson's investigations show that the second wall of the city would have embraced this spot. And both he and his companion were forced to the conclusion that the hypothesis which makes the second wall run so as to exclude the alleged site of the holy sepulchre, is on topographical grounds untenable. The next point is whether there were in the fourth century any such strong historical or traditional grounds for fixing upon this site as would tend to counterbalance these topographical difficulties and lead to a different conclusion. Chateaubriand has attempted to sustain this position, and his argument at first view is very plausible; but Dr. Robinson examines it at length, and we are irresistibly led to the conclusion that it has no foundation in historic truth. Thus we may consider it as decisively settled, that the church of the holy sepulchre is not built upon the spot where our Lord was crucified and buried. But if it be asked, Where are the true sites of Golgotha and the sepulchre? the answer is, that all search for them will probably be in vain. All we know from Scripture respecting them is, that they were nigh to each other, out of the gate but near the city, and in a frequented spot. This would favor the presumption, that these sites were upon some great road leading from one of the gates; such a spot is to be found only on the west or north of the city, either on the road leading to Joppa or Damascus.

From Jerusalem Dr. Robinson made frequent excursions into the surrounding country, examining the most prominent points of interest. On one of these occasions he visited Bethel, called by the native population Beitîn. The monks do not appear to have been aware of its existence, at least for centuries, and have assigned it a location much further toward the north. Bethel is frequently mentioned in the Old Testament. Abraham first pitched his tent in Palestine, on the high ground, eastward, which is still one of the finest tracts for pasturage in the whole land. Here Jacob, on his way to Haran, slept, and in his dream saw the angels of the Lord ascending and descending; hither he afterward returned, and built an altar unto God. Samuel came to this place once a year to judge the people. In later times, after the apostasy of Israel, Jeroboam set up here one of the golden calves for the people to worship. The present ruins show that it was a town of some importance, even as late down as the middle ages; and it is a matter of surprise that there is no allusion to the place as existing in the histories of the crusades. It is only within three or four

years that its name and site have been discovered among the common people by the Protestant missionaries of Jerusalem. Dr. Robinson mentions as one of the results of this excursion, which was verified by subsequent researches, that while many of the Hebrew names have doubtless perished, there exists at the present day a class of names which, although not occurring in the Scriptures, are probably of Hebrew origin.

On returning to Jerusalem, Dr. Robinson and his companion immediately made preparations for a journey to Ain Jidy, on the coast of the Dead Sea. On their way they stopped to examine the village of Bethlehem, and we cannot forbear quoting our author's reflections on the spot :

"Bethlehem is celebrated in the Old Testament as the birthplace and city of David; and in the New as that of David's greater Son, the Christ the Saviour of the world. What a mighty influence for good has gone from this little spot upon the human race, both for time and for eternity! It is impossible to approach the spot without a feeling of deep emotion springing out of these high and holy associations. The legends and puerilities of monastic tradition may safely be disregarded; it is enough to know that this is Bethlehem, where Jesus the Redeemer was born. Generation after generation has indeed since that time passed away, and their places now know them no more. For eighteen hundred seasons the earth has now renewed her carpet of verdure, and seen it again decay. Yet the skies and the fields, the rocks and the hills, and the valleys around, remain unchanged; and are still the same as when the glory of the Lord shone about the shepherds, and the song of a multitude of the heavenly host resounded among the hills, proclaiming, 'Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace and good will toward men.' .'”—Vol. ii, p. 163.

Dr. Robinson passed the site of the fortress and city of Herodium, built by Herod the Great, also the ruins of Zîf, (Ziph of the Old Testament,) and the extensive ruins of Kurmul, the Carmel of the mountains of Judea, where Saul set up the trophy of his victory over Amalek, and where Nabal was shearing his sheep when David sent him a message recounting his services and asking for a present. Ain Jidy our travelers were able to identify with the En-gedi of the Scriptures. Of this there can be no doubt, as the present Arabic name corresponds to the ancient Hebrew one, and they each signify "Fountain of the Kid." En-gedi is mentioned by Josephus, and in the days of Jerome it was called a large village. There is no mention of it by any of the historians of the crusades, and in later times the monks placed its site seven miles from the Dead Sea. The account which Dr. Robinson gives of the place is the first which has been offered to the public for many cen

turies.

We recur with peculiar pleasure to the observations and researches of our author upon the character of the phenomena of the Dead Sea. We have received so many fabulous accounts of this sea, so many wonderful stories have been told of the marvelous quality of its waters by travelers who have evidently made but slight efforts to examine its peculiar phenomena, that, on this subject, most Biblical scholars have despaired of obtaining correct information. The sea itself has never been surveyed; no one has ever been able to sail around it. Costigan,* an Irish traveler, undertook it, but perished in the attempt. Also Messrs. Moore and Beke transported a boat from Yafa, and commenced a survey, but were obliged to leave it unfinished. Dr. Robinson visited the sea twice, and took his views and measurements from two different points. His first observations were made while he was at Ain Jidy, the others during his visit to the southern end of the sea, in his excursion from Hebron to Wady Mûsa. We will give some interesting particulars of the researches made during both of these visits. His estimates of the size of the sea, although they can only be considered as approximations to the truth, are, that the breadth at Ain Jidy is about nine geographical miles, and the length about thirty-nine. The length, however, varies two or three miles in different seasons of the year, according as the water extends up on the flats toward the south. The bed of the sea is a portion of the Ghôr or great valley, and its breadth at Ain Jidy is much the same as at Wady Mûsa. It lies in a deep caldron, surrounded by lofty cliffs of limestone, those on the eastern side being two thousand or two thousand and five hundred feet above the water, and those on the western fifteen hundred. Nothing but sterility and death-like solitude are to be found upon its shores, except in those parts watered by streams and fountains of fresh water. Dr. Robinson remarks, that the stories so long current of the pestiferous nature of the waters of the Dead Sea are mere fables. He was five days in its vicinity, yet he perceived at no time either noisome smell or noxious vapor arising from its bosom. There must, of course, be an immense evaporation from the sea itself in consequence of its low position, and from its being exposed seven or eight months every year to the unclouded beams of a burning sun. But the character of this evaporation is probably not different from that of any other lake in similar circumstances.

The mountain ridges which surround the sea are of limestone,

Mr. Stephens saw the servant of Costigan, and obtained from him materials for that draft of the sea which he gives in his "Incidents of Travel." However, it resembles the sea only from its being longer than it is wide.