ments, comprised 16,337 square miles and 3 millions of inhabitants. The legislative body, composed of a council of 80 elders, together with another council of 160 members, and the directory (directorium), held their sessions in Milan. The army (French troops in the pay of the republic) amounted to 20,000 men. In March, 1798, it was more closely connected with France by a defensive and offensive alliance, and a commercial treaty. On the renewal of the war between Austria and France, in March, 1799, it was disunited, for a short time, by the successes of the Austrians and Russians, but soon restored by Bonaparte's victory at Marengo (June 14, 1800). The republic then received a deliberative body (consulta) of 50, and an executive council (governo) of 9 members. On the 6th of September, it was enlarged by the addition of the Novarese and Tortonese, and, at the peace of Lunéville (Feb. 9, 1801), was again acknowledged by Austria. Jan. 25, 1802, it received the name of the Italian republic, and elected Bonaparte president, and Francis Melzi d'Erile vicepresident. It was then divided into 13 departments; but, in 1805 (March 17), a deputation of the Italian republic conferred on the French emperor the dignity of king of Italy (see Italy), after which Napoleon was styled empereur des Français et roi d'Italie. CISPADANE REPUBLIC. (See Cisalpine Republic.) CISPLATANA, with Monte-Video. (See Paraguay, and Plata, Republic of) CISRHENISH REPUBLIC. Several towns on the Rhine, particularly Cologne, Aixla-Chapelle and Bonn, at the time when so many republics were created, declared themselves independent, under French protection, and took the title of Cisrhenish republic, in September, 1797. But at the peace of Campo-Forinio (Oct. 17, 1797), the left bank of the Rhine, including the Cisrhenish republic, was ceded to France, by a secret article, and the confederation bearing this name is, in consequence, hardly known. CISTERCIANS; a religious order, which takes its name from its original convent, Citeaux, not far from Dijon, where the society was formed, in 1099. Through the exertions of St. Bernard de Clairvaux (q. v.), it had increased so much, 100 years after its origin, as to embrace 800 rich abbeys, in different countries of Europe. The Cistercians dedicated themselves to a contemplative life. Their rule was severe. They succeeded in freeing themselves from the superintendence of the bishops, and formed a kind of spiritual republic. A high council, consisting of the abbot of Citeaux as superior, the abbots of Clairvaux, La Ferte, Pontigni and Morimond, all in France, and 20 other definitores, governed the body, under the immediate superintendence of the pope. In France, they called themselves Bernardines, in honor of St. Bernard. Among the fraternities emanating from them, the most remarkable are, the Barefooted monks, or Feuillans (q. v.), and the nuns of Portroyal (q. v.), in France, the Recollets, reformed Cistercians, in Spain, and the monks of La Trappe (see Trappists). Riches and indolence brought on the decline of this order. Many of their convents ceased to exist before the reformation, still more afterwards, partly by gradual decay, partly by falling into other hands. The general fate of the religious orders, during the period of the French revolution, reduced the Cistercians to a few convents in Spain, Poland, the Austrian dominions, and the Saxon part of Upper Lusatia. They wear white robes, with black scapularies. CITADEL, or CITTADEL (a diminutive of the Italian città, city; signifying little city), in fortification; a kind of fort, consisting of four, five or six sides, with bastions, commonly joined to towns, and sometimes erected on commanding eminences within them. It is distinguished from a castle by having bastions. Al CITRIC ACID (acidum citricum) exists, in variable proportions, in the lemon, orange, and the red acid fruits. This acid is white, crystallizes in rhomboidal prisms, unalterable in the air, inodorous, of a very acid taste. Specific gravity, 1.034. According to Messrs. Gay-Lussac and Thénard, it is composed of carbon, 33.81, oxygen, 59.859, and hydrogen, 6.330. Heated, it is decomposed, and is partly changed into a new acid, called pyro-citric. It is very soluble in boiling water, and in threefourths of its weight of cold water. cohol dissolves a smaller proportion. The aqueous solution, concentrated in a small degree, is easily altered on exposure to the air. It is obtained by saturating the lemon juice with pulverized chalk, and treating the insoluble citrate which is formed, by diluted sulphuric acid. It is employed instead of lemon juice for making lemonade, and it acts then like the other refrigerant medicines. In large doses, and concentrated, it might produce serious accidents, on account of its caustic action. CITRON. The citron, lime and lemon are different varieties of the fruit of a small evergreen shrub, the original or parent stock of which (citrus medica) was imported from Asia into the southern parts of Europe. The citron is oblong, with a very thick_rind; the lemon is oblong, with a small lump or protuberance at the end; and the lime has no protuberance, has a very thin rind, and is about the size of a small egg. These are the principal marks of difference betwixt these fruits, but they are not quite constant. The lemon shrub has large and slightlyindented shining leaves, of somewhat oval shape, but pointed, and on the footstalks of the leaves there is no remarkable appendage. The flowers are large and white, but purplish on the outside of the petals. It is generally supposed that the citron-tree was first introduced from Assyria and Media into Greece, and thence into the southern parts of Europe, where it is now cultivated to considerable extent. It is also raised in the islands of the West Indies. The fruit, partaking of the same quality as the lemon, with the exception of being somewhat less acid, is seldom eaten raw, but, preserved in sugar, as a sweetmeat, is much used by confectioners and others. It is also occasionally employed in medicine. The lemon is a native of Upper Asia, from whence, like the citron, it was brought into Greece, and afterwards transplanted into Italy. The juice, which is one of the sharpest and most agreeable of all acids, is used in cookery, confectionary, medicine, and various other ways. By calico-printers, it is very extensively employed, as a discharger of color, to produce, with more clearness and effect, the white-figured part of colored patterns dyed with colors formed from iron. The juice is procured by simply squeezing the fruit, and straining it through linen or any loose filter; and in Sicily and other parts of the Mediterranean, it forms an important article of commerce. Being one of the most valuable remedies for the scurvy with which we are acquainted, it generally constitutes part of the sea-stores of ships that are destined for long voyages. Several different modes have been recommended for the preserving of lemon-juice. One of these is, to put it into bottles with a small quantity of oil, which, floating on the surface, prevents the immediate contact of the air, and retards the decomposition of the acid, though the original fresh taste soon gives place to one which is less grateful. In the East Indies, lemon-juice is sometimes evaporated, by a gentle heat, to the consistence of a thick extract. Sometimes it is crystallized into a white and acid salt; but what is sold in the shops under the name of essential salt of lemons, for taking out ink-stains and iron-mould-spots from linen, is only a preparation from the juice of sorel. The external part of the rind has a grateful aromatic and bitter taste, which renders it useful in cookery. When dried, it is considered a good stomachic, promotes the appetite, and is otherwise serviceable as a medicine. It is often candied and made into a sweetmeat, under the name of lemon chips. In distillation, it yields a light and almost colorless oil, which, in smell, is nearly as agreeable as the fresh peel, and is frequently employed as a perfume. Lemons are sometimes preserved in sirup. Small ones, with thick rinds, are converted into a grateful pickle. Marmalade and sirup are also made of them. For the purpose of keeping the fruit, it is recommended that a fine pack-thread, about a quarter of a yard long, should be run through the protuberance at the end of the lemon. The ends of the string are to be tied together, and suspended on a hook, in an airy situation, in such a manner that the lemon may hang perfectly free and detached.The cultivation of the lime is much attended to in several parts of America and the West Indies. Its juice affords a more grateful acid than that of the lemon. CITTÀ, in geography; the Italian word for city, which is used in many proper names of cities, as Città Castellana, Città Ducale, Città Nuova, &c. CITY, in history. Mankind have been twice indebted for civilization and liberty to cities. With them civilization and political institutions began, and in them were developed the principles of democracy or of equal rights in the middle ages. The origin of cities belongs to the earliest period of history. According to Moses, Nimrod built three, among which Babylon was the most important. The Jews believe, though without foundation, that Shem erected the first city after the deluge. At the commencement of society, the form of government was patriarchal. The ruler was the head of the family or clan. Relationship, the innate wish of men to live in society, and, more, perhaps, than both these causes, the necessity of providing means of defence against more powerful clans, brought together separate families into one spot. The fertility of the East, also, was an inducement to men to give up the rambling life of nomades, and to form permanent settlements. These settlers began to barter with those tribes who continued to wander with their herds from place to place. Thus cities sprung up. These were soon surrounded with walls, to prevent the inroads of the wandering tribes. The bond of connexion between their inhabitants thus became closer, and their organization more complete. As by degrees the chiefs of these family-states died away, the citizens began to elect the most able or most popular men for magistrates, without respect to birth or descent. Thus political institutions began to assume a systematic character. The earliest form of government succeeding the patriarchal state was probably monarchical. In this, the religious, paternal and political authority remained rudely mingled. The authority of the king was weak, his connexion with the different parts of his dominions imperfect, and the progress of civilization was promoted almost solely by the growth of the cities. These gave rise to the division of labor, the refinements of social intercourse, the developement of laws caused by the conflicting interests of many people living close together, the idea of equality of rights, the diminution of awe for a distant monarch, the growth of patriotism, springing from the sense of advantages enjoyed, and the exertions necessary to maintain them. These were the salutary consequences of the establishment of cities. Under the mild sky of Asia, Africa, Greece and Italy, cities were built first, and in the greatest number. The Phoenicians and Egyptians particularly distinguished themselves by the erection of cities, which soon attained a high degree of wealth, and consequently of civilization. The Egyptians considered their city Diospolis (Thebes) older than any of the Greek cities, and Pliny says that Cecropia (erected in Attica by Cecrops, 1582 B. C., and afterwards called Athens) was the oldest city of Greece. Heeren justly remarks, that the rise of cities was the most important source of the republicanism of antiquity. This is particularly true of Greece. In fact, cities are, by their very nature, of a republican tendency. Several confederations of cities existed in the ancient world; for instance, the Phoenician, consisting of the cities of Tyre, Sidon, &c., and the Achæan league, formed by the most important cities of Greece, in order to strengthen themselves against the power of Macedon. Under Augustus and his successors, the Romans began to establish colonial cities in Ger many, having done the same long before in Gaul, Spain, Africa, &c. In Switzerland, they first erected cities about A. D. 70, which, however, were mostly laid waste by the Alemanni, and subsequently rebuilt under the government of the Franks (A. D. 496). The Germans, accustomed to a wild, rambling life, did not show any disposition to live in cities, until Charlemagne labored to collect them together in settled abodes, from his desire to civilize them. Henry I distinguished himself particularly in this way, and, on this account, has been called, by some, Henry the City-builder (der Städteerbauer). He gave the cities great privileges, in order to induce his subjects to live in them, and thus laid the foundation of that power, which, at a future period, contributed most to break down the feudal system. In many cities, imperial castles were erected to protect the inhabitants, and the insupportable oppressions and even cruelties exercised by the feudal lords upon their peasants, or by the wandering knights and robbers, drove many people into the cities. The attacks of the neighboring lords gave firmness to their union, and compelled them to cultivate their resources. Commerce and the various arts and trades were soon cultivated within their walls, and their wealth and respectability increased. They soon became sensible of the want of a better system of laws and political administration than prevailed around them, and the principle of equal rights and laws was quickly developed. One of the most important remnants, if not the most important, of the great fabric of ancient civilization, was the cities of Italy. What the world would have become without them is not to be calculated. In spite of their bloody contests with each other, and the vices to which these gave rise, they must be considered as having lighted the torch of modern civilization. It was not the monarchies, it was not the courts of the great princes, it was the cities of Northern Italy, which opened the way for the progress of improvement; and the petty princes of Italy caught from them the spirit which prompted their efforts to promote it. Under the reign of Conrad III (1138-52), the cities of Lom bardy, and particularly Milan, which stood at their head, had acquired a high degree of wealth and power, and had formed themselves into a confederation. The struggles between the emperors and these cities form one of the most important portions of the history of the German empire and of Italy. Frederic I in vain Savigny, Schott, and others, have written on this interesting subject. demolished the powerful city of Milan. It was soon rebuilt, and the cities of Lombardy, in alliance with the pope, obliged Cities, considered in regard to politics. the emperor to conclude with them a very Cities, as we have already said, naturally disadvantageous peace at Constance. Two develope the democratic principle, and, other confederations of cities, highly im- on this and several other accounts, are to portant, were formed during the interreg- be considered among the firmest supports num of the German empire, between 1256 of liberty. Well-organized municipal inand 1272. One of them was the power- stitutions, in which the government is in ful Hansa, or Hanseatic league (q. v.); the the hands of the citizens, afford continother, the confederacy of the High Ger- ual nourishment to the spirit of freedom man and Rhenish cities, from the foot of throughout a country, and, in fact, are the Alps to the mouth of the Mayne, estab- more important, in this point of view, lished by Walpode of Mentz, in 1255. A than the mere possession of legislative similar confederacy, and a very important privileges. Wise nations, therefore, have one, was that of the Suabian cities, insti- bestowed the greatest attention on the tuted in 1488, to repel the outrages of the establishment of free, well-organized mufeudal lords and knights. By degrees, nicipalities, while others have neglected the cities acquired, in the different coun- this, in their zeal to secure the right of tries of Europe, the right of representa- representation to the people at large. The tion in the legislative bodies; and wealth, importance of cities, in this respect, makes industry, knowledge and equal laws, it very difficult, in a constitutional monspread from them through Europe. But archy, to combine the necessary liberty of the cities of Lombardy, though still flour- municipalities with the prerogatives of the ishing and wealthy, had fallen, for the monarchs. In France, this has been a most part, under the rule of single fami- point of contest and legislation ever since lies; their republican governments vanthe establishment of the charter. ished, and their confederation was dissolved. The associations of German cities experienced a similar fate. By the peace of Westphalia, the princes of the German empire were declared sovereign powers, and the more their authority increased, the more did the relative weight of the cities diminish. These had formerly suffered from the oppressions of the feudal lords. They were now the victims of the policy of the neighboring princes, whom envy often led to adopt the most unwarrantable measures against the cities, many of which had lost their independence before Napoleon dissolved the German empire. He took away the privileges of those which remained free; and the congress of Vienna restored freedom to Lübeck, Hamburg, Bremen and Frankfort only because the different powers could not agree to whom they should be assigned. At the same time, Cracow (q.v.) was declared în independent city, with a republican form of government. (For further information, see the articles Germany and Italy.) The following works contain much information on the rise and progress of cities:Fr. Kortum's History of the Origin of the Leagues of the Free Cities in the Middle Ages and in Modern Times (in German), Zürich, 1829; Eichhorn On the Origin of the Cities in Germany, in his periodical Zeitschrift für geschichtliche Rechtswissenschaft, vol. i, page 147 et seq. Von Medical Statistics of Cities. [The following account of the comparative mortality in large European cities is given in the October number of the MedicoChirurgical Review, London, 1829.] It is well known, that, in any given country, the deaths in a city are more numerous than those in the rural districts. This difference is principally felt in the first 5 years of life, when many more die in London than in the country. From 5 years of age to 20, the deaths in London are fewer. Between 20 and 50, many more die in London, on account of the large annual influx from the country. In all cities, a large portion of disease and death is to be assigned to the constant importation from the country of individuals who have attained to maturity, but, having been previously habituated to frequent exercise in a pure atmosphere, and to a simple, regular diet, are gradually sacrificed to confined air, sedentary habits, or a capricious and over-stimulating diet. These causes are not equally fatal to those who have passed their early years within the walls of a city; and, after the age of 50, the proportion of deaths in London is smaller than in the country. Jenner, and, very recently, doctor Baron, have made some curious experiments on animals, which indicate that a loss of their open range and natural nourishment has, with them also, a tendency to disorganize and to destroy. Doctor Baron placed a family of young rabbits in a confined situation, and fed them with coarse green food, such as cabbage and grass. They were perfectly healthy when put up. In about a month, one of them died. The primary step of disorganization was evinced in a number of transparent vesicles, studded over the external surface of its liver. In another, which died 9 days after, the disease had advanced to the formation of tubercles on the liver. The liver of a third, which died 4 days later still, had nearly lost its true structure, so universally was it pervaded with tubercles. Two days subsequently, a fourth died. A considerable number of hydatids were attached to the lower surface of the liver. At this time, doctor Baron removed three young rabbits from the place where their companions had died to another situation, dry and clean, and to their proper and accustomed food. The lives of these remaining three were obviously saved by this change. He obtained similar results from experiments of the same nature performed on other animals.-In Glasgow, the average annual mortality is about 1 in 44 persons.-In Paris, the poor and the rich occupy the two extremities of the scale. The mortality in the one is nearly double that in the other. The average is 1 in 32. The number of violent deaths, in 1823, was 690, of which 390 were cases of suicide. Reviewing, on one side, the great political, moral and physical events which have occurred at Paris during a succession of years, and, on the other, the progress of its population, Villerme has ascertained, that whenever the people have suffered from any cause, the deaths have correspondingly increased, the births have decreased, and the mean duration of life has been shortened. In periods of prosperity, he has found results directly opposite to these. The mean duration of life in Paris is 32 years and some months. It was formerly estimated that one third of the inhabitants of Paris died in the hospitals; but Dupin has lately calculated that half the deaths in Paris take place in the hospitals and other asylums of charity. Not a fourth part of the inhabitants are buried at private cost.-In Geneva, the average mortality for the four years ending in 1823 was 1 in 43, which is a greater mortality than in some of the largest manufacturing towns, as Glasgow, Manchester and Birmingham.-Petersburg. It is curious that the burials exceed the births in the Russian capital, by 134 to 100. The Russians attempt to explain this by the annual influx of per sons from the provinces. But this influx is not peculiar to St. Petersburg. The last-mentioned city and Stockholm are the only known metropolitan cities which present the preponderance of death over production. The annual mortality of the Russian capital is 1 in 37.-Berlin. From 1747 to 1755, the annual mortality of Berlin was 1 in 28. Between 1726 and 1799, it improved to 1 in 29 Here the beneficial change was retarded by the ravages, the losses, the disappointments of war, and, from 1802 to 1806, it had retrograded to 1 in 27; but from 1816 to 1822, a period of exultation and tranquillity to the Prussians, the value of life took a remarkable leap, and the annual deaths fell to less than 1 in 34.-Vienna. In the middle of the last century, the mortality of Vienna was 1 in 20, and it has not improved in proportion as other cities of Europe. According to the most recent calculations, it is, even now, as 1 in 22. Among 10,530 deaths, scarcely 38 persons are found to have attained the age of 90. The spirit of excessive regulation, the dread of novelty, the restrictions imposed on the medical profession, and political causes which need not be enumerated, appear to have retarded the natural progress of this city. The overweening paternity of the government interferes with the trivial concerns of the citizens, in the same manner in which an arbitrary and untaught father sometimes restrains the useful impulses of his children, while he permits an easy vent to their baser propensities.-Prague, the capital of Bohemia, has only one third the population of Vienna, and is much healthier. The superior longevity of the Jews is strongly marked in this city. One death is annually observed among 26 of the Israelites, and 1 in 22 among the Christians. Instances of considerable longevity, especially among the women, are not rare. Contrary to the usual observation, longevity is confined to poverty and married life. According to an average of several years, no nobleman, no wealthy person, no bachelor, and no unmarried woman, has passed the age of 95. This is an interesting fact, but it is an extreme and an insulated one, and does not militate against the general conservative tendency of prosperity, which a variety of evidence seems to establish.-Palermo. Mortality is here 1 in 31. January, October and November are the most fatal months; April, May and June the most healthy.-Leghorn. The average annual mortality here is 1 in 35. Among the |