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collection of his compositions which had appeared in the Wandsbeck Messenger, and other periodicals, with the addition of some which had not been printed, and gave the collection the title Asmus omnia sua secum portans, or Complete Works of the Wandsbeck Messenger (complete till 1812, in 8 vols.). He wrote on a great variety of subjects. All his works are of a popular character. They are written in a natural, intelligible, and often humorous style, and support the cause of good morals, benevolence, patriotism and piety, while they attack folly and vice with the weapons of ridicule and scorn. Many of his songs have been set to music by the first composers, and have become a part of the national melodies. In the latter part of his life, he became a convert to religious mysticism, and died at Hamburg, Jan. 21, 1815, after having filled several public offices.

CLAUSENBURG, or COLOSVAR; a town in Transylvania, capital of the Land of the Hungarians and of a county of the same name, on the Samos; 145 miles N. N. E. Belgrade, 225 E. S. E. Vienna; lon. 23° 35′ E.; lat. 46° 44′ N.; population, 18,210; number of houses, 1200. It became the seat of government of Transylvania about 1790. It is situated in a romantic valley, surrounded on all sides by lofty mountains, and has a handsome public square, several elegant streets, fine gardens, and public walks. It contains 5 Catholic churches, 2 Calvinist, 1 Lutheran, 1 Unitarian, 2 hospitals, a Catholic college containing, in 1814, 232 students; a Reformed college with 636 students; and a Unitarian college with 206 students.

CLAUSEWITZ, Charles von, Prussian major-general, director of the general military school at Berlin, born, June 1, 1780, at Burg, entered the military service in 1792, and took part in the campaigns of 1793 and 1794. He was also active in the war against Napoleon, in the service of Russia and Prussia, and has distinguished himself by his Uebersicht des Feldzugs von 1813 (Survey of the Campaign of 1813).

CLAVICHORD. (See Clarichord.) CLAVICIMBALUM; the name originally given to the harpsichord.

CLAVI-CYLINDER. (See Chladni.) CLAVIGERO, Francesco Saverio; a Spanish historian, who was a native of Vera Cruz, in Mexico. He was educated as an ecclesiastic, and resided nearly 40 years in the provinces of New Spain, where he acquired the languages of the Mexicans, and other indigenous nations, collected many of their traditions, and studied their

historical paintings, and other monuments of antiquity. The first of his researches was a History of Mexico, written in Italian, of which an English translation in 2 vols. 4to. was published in 1787. This is a most comprehensive work, affording a great deal of information relative to the natural and civil history, antiquities and religion of Mexico; but it displays more industry than judgment on the part of the author.

CLAVIJO Y FLAXARDO, don Joseph; a Spaniard, who fell a sacrifice to a quarrel with Beaumarchais. He lived in Madrid, where he had the reputation of an intelligent scholar, and had published a journal, El Pensador, and other useful works, when his connexion with the sister of Beaumarchais, whom he had loved, and then forsaken, gave rise to an affair of honor between him and the brother of the lady, who was formidable for talent rather than courage. This affair nearly occasioned Clavijo the loss of his life, and deprived him of his office and the good opinion of his fellow-citizens. He passed the remainder of his life under a kind of dishonor which the representations of his adversary had brought upon him. For more than 20 years, he superintended the publication of the Mercurio Historico y Politico de Madrid, with which he had been intrusted as early as 1773. He likewise translated Buffon's Natural History into Spanish (Madrid, 1785-90, 12 vols.). He was vice-director of the cabinet of natural history, and director of the Theatre de los Sitios, when he died in 1806. Far from resembling the detestable portrait which Beaumarchais draws of him, Clavijo was of a mild disposition, upright character, and a clear understanding. Göthe founded his tragedy Clavigo on Beaumarchais's story.

CLAVIS (Latin for key) is often used for a drawing, an index, &c., which serves as a guide to the understanding of another work; for instance, clavis Ciceronia, clavis Homerica, &c.

CLAY is a mixture of decomposed minerals, and hence it is by no means uniform in its composition. Several varieties soften in water, and allow themselves to be kneaded and formed into moulds-a property by which they are fitted for the use so commonly made of them. Some are easily fusible, others refractory; some acquire particular tints, others lose their color and become white when exposed to a strong heat; upon all of which properties their applicability depends. They occur in beds near the surface of the

earth, or, covered by the soil, in the formations of brown and black coal. In the latter situation, they often contain remains of vegetables, and are called slate clay, which is intimately related to bituminous shale and alum-earth. Alumine is the basis of all clays, and imparts to them their predominating characters. It is mixed with very variable proportions of silex, magnesia, lime, and oxide of iron. The varieties of clay are of various important applications in pottery, in manufacturing stone-ware and porcelain, in constructing furnaces for metallurgic operations, &c.-Some of the principal varieties are indurated clay, or clay stone, which is clay in its highest state of induration. It is soft, but not easily diffused in water, and does not form with it a ductile paste.-Porcelain clay, so named from the use to which it is applied, is white, with occasional shades of yellow and gray. It is dull and opaque; feels soft; in water, it falls to powder, and, when kneaded, it forms a ductile paste. It is, in general, infusible by any heat that can be raised. It consists essentially of silex and alumine; that of Cornwall contains 60 parts of alumine with 20 of silex.-Potter's clay and pipe clay are similar, but less pure, generally of a yellowish or grayish color, from the presence of iron.-Loam is the same substance mixed with sand, oxide of iron, and various other foreign ingredients. The boles, which are of a red or yellow color, are of a similar composition, and appear to owe their colors to oxide of iron. They are distinguished by their conchoidal fracture.-The ochres are similar to the boles, containing only more oxide of iron.-Fuller's earth has an earthy fracture, sometimes slaty, is dull and opaque. In water, it falls to powder, without forming a ductile paste. It is used to remove grease from cloth.-Tripoli is found loose or indurated; its fracture is earthy; it feels harsh and dry; does not adhere to the tongue. It is used for polishing the metals and glass. The clays are too generally distributed to require the enumeration of their localities.

Clemence IsauRE, daughter of Ludovico Isaure, born in 1464, near Toulouse, lost her brave father when she was only five years old. She was educated in solitude, and grew up, endowed by nature with beauty and talents. Near to her garden dwelt a young troubadour, named Raoul, who became enamored of her, and communicated his passion in songs, in which her name and his were united. The maiden replied, not with words, but

with flowers, agreeably to the petition of her lover

Vous avez inspiré mes vers,

Qu'une fleur soit ma récompenseand Raoul could well interpret their meaning. He was the natural son of count Raymond of Toulouse, and followed his father to the war against the emperor Maximilian. In the battle of Guigenaste, both were slain, and Isaure resolved to take the veil. Before doing so, however, she renewed the poetic festival which had been established by the gay company of the seven troubadours, but had been, for a long time, forgotten, gave it the name of Jeux floraux (q. v.), and assigned, as prizes for the victors in the poetical contests, the five different flowers which had served her as means for replying to her lover's passion. These flowers were wrought in gold and silver. Clemence Isaure appropriated all her fortune to the support of this institution. She was versed herself in the gaye science, and, having fixed upon the 1st of May as the day for the distribution of the prizes, she composed an ode on spring, which acquired for her the surname of the Sappho of Toulouse.

CLEMENT, Titus Flavius (probably a native of Athens, but, on account of the place of his residence, commonly called the Alexandrian), was one of the most famous teachers of the Christian church, in the 2d and at the beginning of the 3d century. He had been a heathen philosopher, was converted to Christianity, and, after travelling a long time in Greece, Italy and the East, became presbyter of the church of Alexandria, and teacher (catechetes) of the school in that city, in which place he succeeded Pantænus, his teacher, and was succeeded by Origen, his pupil. These three instructers increased the fame of the Alexandrian school in the 2d and 3d century. Clement was a fertile writer. The most important among those of his productions which have been handed down to us, are inscribed Προτρεπτικός, Παιδαγωγός, and Στρωματ res, or Ero@para. The first is an exhortation to the heathens to embrace Christianity, the second an exposition of Christian morals, and the third, which exhibits the most varied erudition, has the title Carpets, on account of the variety of subjects, moral, metaphysical, theological, historical, which are here interwoven. It has been justly remarked that these works are an imitation of the degrees of the Greek mysteries. The first was the 'Anoκá@apois, the purification from the former life; the second, the Monois, the consecration; the

third, the 'EлORTεia, inspection. The works of Clement are of great importance, as enabling us to judge of the state of science in his time, and because they contain fragments and accounts of lost works of antiquity. Clement introduced the eclectic philosophy into Christianity, and promoted the allegorical and mystical explanation of the sacred writings. The philosophy and erudition which gained him the admiration of his time, but also seduced him, at times, into singular speculations, caused him, at a later period, to be considered a heretic, and to lose, with the orthodox, the name of saint, which had been conferred on him. The first editions of his works are that at Florence, in 1550, and that at Heidelberg (Commelin.), 1592, by Frederic Sylburg, both in folio. The most complete is that of John Potter, Oxon., A Theatro Sheldon, 1715, reprinted at Venice, 1757.

CLEMENT; the name of many popes.CLEMENT I, of Rome, was, according to the most probable computation, from 91 to 100, bishop in that city. He is counted among the apostolic fathers (see Church, Fathers of), because St. Paul, in his epistle to the Philippians (chap. iv. verse 3), mentions a Clement as a co-laborer with him, and St. Peter is said to have given him the spiritual consecration. He wrote two letters to the Corinthians, of which the first is extant almost entire, but disfigured with some corruptions and interpolations; of the second, only a fragment exists. There is a work, pretending to be the autobiography of Clement, containing an account of his life, and his travels with the apostle Peter, which, however, can be proved to have been written at the end of the 2d or the beginning of the 3d century. It exists in three different forms: the first and most complete is in a Latin translation by Rufinus, under the title Recognitiones, because Clement, after a number of the strangest adventures, finds the members of his family, who had been separated from him; the second is in Greek, and divided into homilies, under the title Clementina; the third is a short epitome, relating the acts, journeys and preaching of St. Peter. There is equally little reason for considering Clement the author of the body of apostolic constitutions and canons which are ascribed to him, though some of them may belong to him, or at least to his age. Of a far later origin are the pseudo-Clementine letters among the spurious decretals. The opinion started by professor Kestner, 1819, that Clement established a secret Christian

society, under the name Agape, for the systematic suppression of paganism, has not been adopted by any other theologian. CLEMENT II (Suidger, bishop of Bamberg) was placed in the papal see by the emperor Henry III, in the room of the unworthy Benedict IX. He crowned this emperor, and held a synod for the suppression of simony. His death took place in 1047. He was probably poisoned by Benedict IX. (q. v.)

He

CLEMENT III (Guibert, archbishop of Ravenna, belonging to the party of the emperor Henry IV) was chosen pope in 1080, with the view of supplanting Gregory VII, and placed by violence in the Roman see (1084); maintained his situation as anti-pope, even after Gregory's death, against Victor III, who was chosen by Gregory's adherents, and against Urban II, with various success, till 1089. was expelled by the Romans, and compelled to swear to renounce all claims to the papal authority; but, in 1091, he returned to Rome with Henry's army. Being again compelled to quit the city in 1094, he sought refuge at Henry's court, submitted, in 1099, to Urban's successor, Paschal II, and died at Ravenna, in 1100. He exercised the papal authority only in those provinces of Germany and Italy which were under the dominion of the emperor, and is not numbered among the legal popes. Consequently, the cardinalbishop Paulus of Palestine, a Roman, chosen pope in 1187, was denominated Clement III. His government was rendered remarkable by a compact with the Romans, which put an end to the disputes that had previously been constantly occurring between them and their pontiffs, and strengthened his authority. He promoted the crusades, and supported Tancred in getting possession of the Sicilian crown. Tancred was a natural son of the duke Roger of Apulia. This pope died in 1191.

CLEMENT IV (Guido of St. Guilles, in Languedoc); previously counsellor to the king of France, and a lawyer. He was also the father of two daughters. When a widower, he became archbishop of Narbonne, cardinal-bishop of Sabina, and legate in England. He was chosen pope in 1265, by the party of Charles of Anjou, and conferred on this prince the crown of both the Sicilies, then possessed by Manfred. Clement assisted Charles against Manfred by instigating a crusade against the latter, and did not obtain possession of Rome himself until 1268, after a residence of two years in France (until

1267), and subsequently at Viterbo, and after the last prince of the Hohenstaufen stock, Conradin, had been beheaded at Naples. Not satisfied with having caused the fall of the house of Hohenstaufen in Italy, he wished to decide the dispute between Richard of England and Alphonso of Spain, respecting the imperial throne of Germany, but died, without having accomplished his object, at Viterbo, Nov. 29, 1269. He was distinguished, as a ruler of the church, by his power and resolution, as an excellent preacher, strict ascetic, and enemy to nepotism.*

CLEMENT V (Bertrand d'Agoust, from Gascony), previous to his election, archbishop of Bordeaux, and an adherent to Boniface VIII, who was the most inveterate enemy of Philip, king of France; but on the death of Boniface VIII, Philip gained him over by promising to promote his election, and obtained from him a secret agreement to conform entirely to his wishes. He was indebted for his election (which took place in Perugia, June 5, 1305) to the artifices of Philip's agents, who outwitted the Italian cardinals. He remained in France, on account of the civil wars in Italy, was crowned at Lyons, and then travelled about the country at the expense of the king and the French clergy, until, in 1309, he finally fixed upon Avignon as the constant residence of the papal court. With him, therefore, the series of French popes (or those who resided in Avignon) commences. In consideration of his agreement above-mentioned, he released the king and his servants from the excommunication which Boniface had pronounced against them, declared the penal bulls of this pope against France invalid, made cardinals of the king's favorites, and resigned to the king the tithes of France for five years. He, however, defeated Philip's plan of placing his brother Charles of Valois on the throne of Germany, and, against Philip's desire, acquitted Boniface, after a tedious process, and long after his death, of the charge of heresy, at the council of Vienne. The holding of this council, which sat seven months, in 1311 and 1312, was the principal act of his reign. At this same council, in obedience to the wishes of Philip, he abolished the order of the Templars, and made salutary laws for the reform of the clergy and the monastic discipline, which, in honor of him,

*Nepotism, from nepos (nephew), denotes the indue partiality of the popes towards their relations, and their prodigal distribution of the offices and revenues of the church among them.

were denominated Clementines. (q. v.) He endeavored to confirm his power in Italy by a close connexion with king Robert of Naples, his vassal. With his assistance, he humbled Venice, on which he had imposed the interdict, in 1308, to punish this state for having taken possession of Ferrara, and, in 1309, issued a new act of excommunication, by which he pronounced the Venetians infamous and outlawed, abolished all the offices of their government, released the people from obedience, and annulled the laws. By a crusade against Venice, in which his legate subdued Ferrara, and by the confiscation of Venetian vessels and goods, he reduced the republic to complete subjection, and put an end to the war in 1313. Robert rendered him still greater service by restraining the power of the German emperor, and that of the Ghibeline party in Italy. The emperor Henry VII, although chosen by his influence, and bound to him by an oath of allegiance, knew well how to distinguish his rights in Italy from his obligations to the pope. On his march to Rome, in 1311, he found the whole of Lombardy in a state of revolt; and Clement refused him assistance, and even forbade his coronation, which Henry, however, extorted from the cardinals in Rome, in 1312. Henry, having engaged in a dis pute with king Robert respecting the government of Naples, put him under the ban of the empire, and refused the pope's offer of mediation between him and his antagonist; upon which Clement issued bulls for the protection of his vassal, and excommunicated all the emperor's allies. Upon the emperor's death, Clement appointed Robert, in 1314, Roman senator and regent in Italy; but, in the midst of his plans for the complete subjection of this country, he died, April 20, 1314, at Roquemaure, in Languedoc. He left behind him an inglorious name. Constant embarrassments, extravagance and nepotism, made him covetous, and led him to practise the most unlimited simony. He did great injury to the church by grants of valuable benefices to laymen, allowed his nephews to waste the money collected for the crusades, and Avignon to become the seat of every description of vice during his reign, the impurity of his own morals compelling him to overlook the faults of others. His establishment, at the council of Vienne, of chairs for instruction in the Oriental languages at the universities; his encouraging the studies of the monks, and restricting, in some degree, the crying injustice of the inquisition, cannot compen

sate for the flagrant faults in his administration of the papal see.

CLEMENT VI was a ruler not unlike the foregoing. His name was Peter Roger. He was born of a noble family in 1292, at Maumont, near Limoges; at first a Benedictine monk and abbot of Fecamp, afterwards bishop of Arras and counsellor of king Philip, likewise archbishop of Sens and Rouen; in 1338, cardinal, and in 1342, pope at Avignon. By the distribution of numberless abbeys and bishoprics to his favorites, by the sale of church offices, and by ordering the jubilee to be celebrated every fiftieth year instead of every hundredth, he soon gave proofs of his avarice. The emperor Louis of Bavaria he treated with the greatest severity, following the footsteps of his predecessor. His bulls of excommunication even surpassed those of the preceding pontiff in the violence of their anathemas and their obloquy. The son of the king of Bohemia, Charles of Luxemburg, who had formerly been his pupil at Paris, and was entirely devoted to him, was, by his influence, chosen king of the Romans, in 1346, by a part of the German members of the empire; but Clement was not able to get him universally acknowledged; after the death of Louis, in 1347, he was forced to grant to his adherents unconditional absolution; and, in order to gain the members of the empire after the renunciation of the rival candidate Günther of Schwarzburg, he was obliged to consent to the reelection of Charles IV (q. v.), in 1349, without being able to obtain the entire fulfilment of the conditions, disadvantageous to the German empire, on which he had procured him the crown. Clement was more fortunate in Italy, where the revolt in Rome, under Rienzi (q. v.), in 1346, was soon quelled, and this remarkable man came into his power. The assassination of Andrew, king of Naples, afforded him an opportunity of inducing his widow, Joanna, who was suspected of being an accomplice in the murder, to sell Avignon to the papal see, in 1348; in consideration of which, she received absolution, and was left in possession of her realm. Thus the pope gained his possessions in France at a cheap rate. For a Spanish prince, he founded, in 1344, the kingdom of the Canary Isles. His negotiations for a union with the Greeks and Armenians were without success. He died unregretted in 1352. He was mild and liberal, in fact too much so towards his relations, fond of women, and not even externally devout. Petrarch praises his good memory. His 21

VOL. III.

During the

writings are unimportant. great schism, two popes bore the name of Clement, who were not accounted legitimate popes by the church. Robert, count of Geneva, bishop of Cambray, and cardinal, was elected pope at the age of 36, at Fondi, in 1478, by the French cardinals, who had abandoned pope Urban VI. He adopted the name of Clement VII. With him the great schism commenced, France, and, at a later period, Scotland, Lorraine, Savoy and Spain having joined him. He resided at Avignon, where he derived his support from annates and from the sale of benefices, and offered to allow the schism to be decided by a council of the church, but made no dispositions to bring this about. In Italy, he had no power, and was unable to protect the house of Anjou, in Naples. He died without reputation, Sept. 16, 1394. Still less power had the successor of the schismatic Benedict XIII, Ægidius Muñoz, from Barcelona, who was elected pope by three cardinals at Peniscola, in 1424, and called Clement VIII. He was supported by king Alphonso of Arragon, and resided at Peniscola until 1429, when he was induced, by receiving the bishopric of the Baleares, to give up his claims.

CLEMENT VII (Julius of Medici); a natural son of Julius of Medici, prior of the knights of St. John, under pope Julius II. He was legitimated by his uncle Leo X, made archbishop of Florence, cardinal and chancellor, and finally raised to the papal see (Nov. 19, 1523). His connexion with Francis I, king of France, involved him in a war with Charles V, to which he was by no means equal. The imperial army conquered and sacked Rome in 1527, imprisoned Clement for the space of seven months, in the castle of St. Angelo, and forced him to surrender all the strong places, and to pay a ransom of 40,000 ducats. Notwithstanding his flight to Orvieto, in which he was assisted by the French marshal Lautrec, he was compelled to perform this condition, and to appoint cardinals and prelates for money, to enable him ultimately to conclude peace with the emperor in 1529. He crowned Charles at Bologna in 1530, and obtained of him the reestablishment of the family of Medici in the duchy of Florence. He was not able to prevent the progress of the reformation in Germany, and, in England, he even accelerated it, by issuing a bull against the divorce of Henry VIII, which instigated that monarch to a total rupture with the pope. France received from him a per

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