lar diffusion of this fluid may be effected by artificial inflation.

CELSUS, Aurelius Cornelius, lived, probably, under the reign of Augustus. He has been called the Roman Hippocrates, because he imitated the Greek physician, and introduced the Hippocratic system into Rome. He also wrote on rhetoric, the art of war and agriculture. He is, however, best known as a medical writer. His style is elegant, concise, and, nevertheless, very clear. His work on medicine is an inexhaustible source, from which other good authors have drawn materials for writings, both medical and surgical. He has furnished subsequent writers with a multitude of authorities for the support of their different theories, but has suffered much arbitrary interpretation. Hippocrates and Asclepiades are the two authors whom he has followed most. More than 59 editions of his 8 books De Medicina had appeared in 1785; the first at Florence, 1478, fol.: the best is by Krause, Leipsic, 1766: that of Targa was printed at Padua, 1769, 4to., and one at Verona, 1810, 4to.

CELTE (they called themselves, also, Gael, or Gales; see Gael); one of the four chief nations which inhabited Gallia. Their territory extended from the extreme point of Brittany to the Rhine and the Alps. The Romans, therefore, called the whole country Celtica, or Galatia. They left Asia at some distant period, and, at the time of Tarquinius Priscus, came, under Bellovesus, to Upper Italy, and large numbers of them spread over several countries of Europe. In Spain, they became mingled with the Iberians, whom they conquered. Internal wars weakened them; and commerce with the Romans, and with the people of Marseilles, made them more civilized. The Italian Celta were subjected, 220 B. C., by the Romans. The Boii united themselves with the Helvetii ; the Illyrian Celta with the Illyrians. Their government was aristocratical.

The nobles formed a national assembly. The commons were regarded as little better than slaves. They were large, and of great bodily strength, impetuous in their attacks, but not well able to endure hardships. A huge sword, generally of copper, was their chief weapon. Their priests, the Druids (q. v.), enjoyed the greatest authority.

CELTES, Conrad; born, in 1459, at Protuch, in Franconia. His original name was Meissel, which he changed into Celtes Protucius. He ran away from his parents, and studied in Cologne. In 1484

and 1485, he studied under the tuition of Rodolph Agricola, at Heidelberg, and became a philologist and Latin poet. He then travelled to Italy, where he attended the lectures of the most learned teachers of his time. On his return through Illyria, Hungary and Poland, he was taught astronomy and astrology by Albertus Brutus, and met with the most favorable reception at the German courts. In Nu.. remburg, he was crowned by the emperor Frederic III (1491), on account of the reputation which he had acquired by his Latin poems, being the first German poet who received this honor. He afterwards travelled for 10 years, visiting all the universities in Germany, and found, at length, a resting-place in Vienna, where Maximilian I appointed him, in 1501, professor of poetry and rhetoric, and president of the faculty established for the study of classical antiquities. He left a history and description of Nuremburg, a poem on the situation and manners of Germany, several philosophical, rhetorical and biographical works, and a number of poems. He considered the study of languages, not, like other philologists of his time, as an object of pursuit in itself, but only as a means for obtaining an acquaintance with those sciences which have a more immediate bearing on the business of life, among which he placed history and geography first. His plan for a great literary society (sodalitas Celtica), for which he had already obtained grants of privileges from the emperor, was interrupted by his death in 1508. Only the Rhenish society, which he founded in Heidelberg, outlived him.

CELTIBERI, or CELTIBERIANS; inhabitants of Celtiberia, a country along the Iberus, in the north-east part of Spain. They formed the most numerous tribe in Spain, and originated from Iberians mixed with Celts. They were brave, and their cuneus was formidable even to the Romans. They despised agriculture. After a long resistance to the Romans, they were, at last, in the Sertorian war, subjected to their sovereignty, adopted their manners, language, dress, &c. They were divided into six tribes-the Bellones, Arevaci, Peleudones, north of the Durius; and the Lusones, Belli and Ditthi, more to the south.

CEMENTATION; a chemical process, in which a metal (and often other bodies) is placed in connexion with other substances, often in layers (stratum super stratum), in close vessels, that the former may be separated from its combinations, or changed (frequently oxydated), at a high tempera

ture. The substance with which the metal or other body is surrounded is called cement-powder. In cementing gold, the alloy is beaten into thin plates, and placed in alternate layers, with a cement containing nitrate of potass and sulphate of iron. The whole is then exposed to heat, until a great part of the alloying metals are removed by the action of the nitric acid liberated by the nitre. Iron is cemented with charcoal-powder and other substances, and thereby converted into steel. Glass is changed, by cementation with gypsum, into Réaumur's porcelain. Copper is cemented with a powder of calamine and charcoal, and thereby converted into brass. The copper obtained from the sulphate of copper, by precipitation with iron, is called cement-copper.

CEMENTS. The substances used for producing cohesion between different materials are very various. They are mostly, however, soft or semi-fluid, and harden in the course of time. The number employed is very great. We can mention only a few. The joints of iron pipes, and the flanges of steam-engines, are cemented with a mixture composed of sulphur and muriate of ammonia, together with a large quantity of iron chippings. The putty of glaziers is a mixture of linseed oil and powdered chalk. Plaster of Paris, dried by heat, and mixed with water, or with rosin and wax, is used for uniting pieces of marble. A cement composed of brickdust and rosin, or pitch, is employed by turners, and some other mechanics, to confine the material on which they are working. Common paint, made of white lead and oil, is used to cement China-ware. So also are resinous substances, such as mastic and shell lac, or isinglass dissolved in proof-spirit or water. The paste of bookbinders and paper-hangers is made by boiling flour. Rice-glue is made by boiling ground rice in soft water to the consistence of a thin jelly. Wafers are made of flour, isinglass, yeast and white of eggs, dried in thin layers upon tin plates, and cut by a circular instrument. They are colored by red-lead, &c. Sealing-wax is composed of shell lac and rosin, and is commonly colored with vermilion. Common glue is most usually employed for uniting wood, and similar porous substances. It does not answer for surfaces not porous, such as those of the metals, and is not durable if exposed to water. The cements mostly used in building are composed of lime and sand. Lime is procured by burning substances in which it exists in combination with carbonic acid,

such as limestone, marbles, chalk and shells. By this process, the carbonic acid is driven off, and quicklime is obtained. The quicklime is slaked by mixture with water, after which it swells and cracks, becomes hot, and assumes the form of a white and impalpable powder. This is a hydrate of lime, and contains about three parts of lime to one of water. When intended for mortar, it should be immediately mixed with sand, and used without delay, before it imbibes carbonic acid anew from the atmosphere. The lime adheres to and unites the particles of the sand. Cements thus made increase in strength and solidity for an indefinite period. Fresh sand, wholly silicious and sharp, is the best. That taken from the sea-shore is unfit for making mortar, as the salt is apt to deliquesce and weaken the mortar. The amount of sand is always greater than that of the lime. From two to four parts of sand are used, according to the quality of the lime and the labor bestowed on it. Water cements, called also Roman cements, harden under water, and consolidate almost immediately on being mixed. Common mortar dissolves or crumbles away if laid under water before it has had time to harden; but certain rocks, which have an argillaceous as well as a silicious character, communicate to lime or mortar the property of hardening in a very few minutes, both in and out of water. ancient Romans, in making their water cements, employed a peculiar earth, obtained at the town of Puteoli. This they called pulvis Puteolanus. It is the same that is now called Puzzolana. It is evidently of volcanic origin. The Dutch, in their great aquatic structures, have mostly employed a substance denominated tarras, terras, or trass, found near Andernach, in the vicinity of the Rhine. It is said to be a kind of decomposed basalt, but resembles Puzzolana. It is very durable in water, but inferior to the other kinds in the open air. Baked clay and the common greenstone afford the basis of very tolerable water cements, when mixed with lime. Some of the ores of manganese may be used for the same purpose. Some limestones, calcined and mixed with sand and water, also afford water cements, usually in consequence of containing some argillaceous earth. Some cements, of great hardness and permanency, have been obtained from mixtures, into which animal and vegetable substances enter, such as oil, milk, mucilage, &c. The name of maltha or mastic is given them. They are not much used.

The

CEMETERY. In the article BuryingPlaces, we have given the history of the custom of interring the dead, and shall only mention, in this place, two cemeteries, perhaps the most interesting which ever existed. One of them is the common place of burial of the ancient Egyptians, which was situated beyond the lake Acherusia, or Acharejish, the name of which signified the last condition of man, and which probably is the foundation of the Greek fables respecting lake Acheron. On the borders of lake Acherusia, a tribunal, composed of 42 judges, was established, to inquire into the life and character of the deceased. Without this examination, a corpse could not be carried to the cemetery beyond the lake. If the deceased had died insolvent, the court adjudged the corpse to his creditors, in order to oblige his relations and friends to redeem it. If his life had been wicked, they refused his body the privilege of solemn burial, and it was consequently carried and thrown into a large ditch made for the purpose, which received the appellation of Tartar, on account of the lamentations which this sentence produced among the surviving friends and relations. The Greek Tartarus had its origin in this Egyptian Tartar. If no accuser appeared, or the accusations were found groundless, the judges decreed the regular burial, and the eulogium of the deceased was pronounced amongst the applauses of the bystanders. In this, his talents, virtues, accomplishments, every thing except his rank and riches, were praised. To carry the corpse to the cemetery, it was necessary to cross the lake, and to pay a small sum for the passage. This circumstance also was transplanted into the Greek my thology. The cemetery was a large plain, surrounded by trees, and intersected by canals, to which was given the appellation Elisout, or Elisians, meaning rest. Every one recognises, in this description, the Greek Charon, his boat, his ferry-money, and the Elysian fields. The whole ceremony of interment seems to have consisted in depositing the mummy in the excavation made in the rock, or under the sand which covered the whole Elisout: then it seems that the relations of the deceased threw three handfuls of sand, as a sign to the workmen to fill up the cavity, after uttering three loud farewells. (See Lectures on Hieroglyphics and Egyptian Antiquities, by the marquis Spineto, London, 1829.)-Another cemetery of great interest is that of Père Lachaise (see Luchaise), in the north-west part of Paris,

not far from the barrière des Amandiers. This city of the dead has a superficies of more than 51 arpents, and contains a great variety of tombs, some of a touching simplicity, with the marks of unaffected grief, while others remind us of the words of St. Augustine: "Curatio funeris, conditio sepultura, pompa exequiarum, magis vivorum solatia quam subsidia mortuorum." Columns, obelisks, pyramids, funeral vases, monuments of all kinds, and flowers, cover this cemetery, but point out a few only of those who rest in this last abode of many generations. Here repose Heloise and Abelard, the conqueror of Esslingen, Delille, Molière, La Fontaine and Foy, amid a crowd of philosophers, artists, warriors, politicians, and individuals from the ordinary walks of life. From this place you look down on the bustle of the gayest city in the world. A chapel in the buryingground affords the finest view of Paris.

CENCI, Beatrice, called the beautiful parricide, was the cause of the extermination of the noble family of Cenci. Muratori, in his Annals (vol. 10, pt. 1, 136), relates the story as follows: Francesco Cenci, a noble and wealthy Roman, after his second marriage, conducted towards the children of his first marriage in the most shocking manner, procured the assassination of two of his sons, on their return from Spain, by banditti, and, what is still more horrid, seduced and debauched his youngest daughter, a maiden of singular beauty. Beatrice discovered this shocking crime to her relatives, and even sought to obtain protection from pope Clement. It appears, however, that this was not granted; for, when the guilty father continued his former treatment, with aggravated wickedness, she joined with her brother Giacomo, and procured the death of the monster, by two assassins, as he slept. The guilty parties were discovered, confessed the murder on the rack, and were condemned by the pope to be torn to pieces by horses. In vain did the learned Farinaceus (celebrated for his Quastiones) exert himself to obtain a mitigation of their punishment by a lively representation of the depravity of the deceased. According to other accounts, Beatrice and her relatives appear to have had little or no share in the murder of the old Cenci; but a tissue of villany and baseness gained belief to the false testimony of two banditti against the Cenci family. So much is certain, that, Sept. 11, 1599, Beatrice Cenci and her sister were executed with a sort of guillotine, called mannaia. Giacomo was killed with a club; the younger broth

er was pardoned on account of his youth; but the estates of the family, to which belonged the villa Borghese, since so famed for its treasures of art, were confiscated, and presented by the reigning pope, Paul V, of the house of Borghese, to his family. In the palace of Colonna, at Rome, travellers are shown an excellent painting, said to be by Guido Reni, as the portrait of the unfortunate parricide; and this charming picture of the beautiful girl has been the means of spreading over all Europe the tale of horror connected with it. CENIS, Mount; a mountain belonging to the Alps, in the county of Maurienne, in Savoy. Its height is stated to be 8670 feet above the level of the sea. It is famous for the road which leads over it from Savoy to Piedmont. (See Alps, Roads over.) On the mountain is a plain, called Madeleino, and a lake, with an hospital, called La Ramasse. The lake contains trouts of 16 pounds weight. This plain is surrounded by higher peaks covered with snow. (See Alps.) Benvenuto Cellini's journey over the Alps, in the 16th century, Evelyn's, in the 17th, lady Mary Wortley's and Horace Walpole's, in the 18th, are all interesting; but the danger has been removed by Napoleon's road.

CENOBITE. (See Anchoret, and Monastery.)

CENOTAPH (from the Greek Kevoráqov, called also Kevipiov); a monument erected in honor of a deceased person, but not containing his body, as is implied from the terms εs, empty, and rágos, a tomb. Some of these monuments were erected in honor of persons buried elsewhere, others for persons whose bodies were not interred. The ancients believed that, when the body was not buried, the soul could not be admitted into the abodes of the blessed. When a body could not be found, it was supposed that some rest was afforded to the sufferer by erecting him a cenotaph, and calling out his name three times with a loud voice. Such monuments were distinguished by a particular sign, usually a piece of a shipwrecked vessel, to denote the death of the deceased in a foreign land. The Pythagoreans erected cenotaphs to those who had quitted their sect, as if they were actually dead. CENSORS were magistrates at Rome, who kept a register of the number of the people and of their fortune, and (from 442 B. C.) regulated the taxes. At the same time, they watched over the manners of the citizens. They were chosen every fifth year. This institution, at the period of simple manners in which it was

founded, may have been beneficial, but is wholly inconsistent with our ideas of individual liberty. In the different governments of Europe, censors are persons appointed by the government to administer the censorship of the press. (q. v.)

CENSORSHIP OF Books. (See Books, Censorship of.)

CENSUS; with the Romans, one of the most important institutions of the state, and the foundation of its future greatness It was introduced by king Servius Tullius, B. C. 577. All Roman citizens, both in the city and in the country, were obliged to report the amount of their property, the number of their children, slaves, &c., under penalty of losing their property and their liberty. According to the statement thus given in, Servius Tullius divided the citizens into six classes, and those again into centuries. (q. v.) The first class consisted of those whose fortunes amounted respectively to at least 100,000 asses or pounds of copper. The property of the second was at least 75,000; that of the third, 50,000; that of the fourth, 25,000; of the fifth, 11,000 asses: all the rest belonged to the sixth class. (See As.) Each class had a particular kind of arms, a particular post in the army, &c. This division produced the most important consequences for Rome. At an earlier period, the poor citizens were obliged to pay the same taxes, and render the same services in war, as the rich; and the most important branches of the public administration were in the hands of the ignorant and passionate mob. The heaviest burdens in war and in peace were, by this institution, transferred to the rich, and the chief direction of public affairs was placed in the hands of the first class, which contained, according to the rule of division established by Servius Tullius, as many centuries as all the rest. The citizens of the lowest class, who had no property, or very little, were hardly counted as a class, so that the ancient authors often mention

only five classes. In the course of time, the original divisions suffered some alterations, but the institution remained essentially the same. This census was repeated every fifth year, at first by the kings, afterwards by the consuls, and, finally, by the censors. At a later period, however, it was not always taken at the fixed time, and was often entirely omitted. After the termination of the census, an expiatory sacrifice was offered, called suovetaurilia. -In the U. States, the census has again become an institution of great political importance, as it affords the basis of the