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Cadiz. Almost the whole Spanish coasting trade is in the hands of the French, Dutch and English. The independence of Spanish America has almost totally annihilated the colonial power of Spain. The situation of Cuba may be considered dubious, like that of the Philippines. (See Philippines and South America.)

Turkey. The Turks are, as yet, very far from being a commercial nation, although their commerce with Austria, France, Italy, Great Britain, Holland, &c. by means of the Jews, Armenians and Greeks living in Turkey, who have the trade of this country almost wholly in their hands, is by no means insignificant. The insurrection of the Greeks did, indeed, at first, interrupt very much the commerce of Austria and other states; and the British were also formidable rivals on the Ionian isles; but Vienna, the centre of the Greek trade, has, nevertheless, retained its connexion with Turkey, while the productions and the demands of the free Greeks must soon much increase. They offer cotton for linen, silk for cloths, gold for iron. Nature and habit recommend to them intercourse with Austria. On the other hand, the commerce with European Russia, by way of Constantinople to Odessa, was very much restricted by the Porte, subsequently to 1823, by the necessity of relading, to which it subjected the European vessels destined for Odessa, and by other burdensome regulations. This, however, has been changed by the peace concluded with Russia in 1829. Every vessel can, at present, pass the Dardanelles unmolested. This must soon have a great influence upon the Turkish trade also. In the Archipelago, the Greek struggle for freedom has given rise to many dangers to the commerce of neutrals. The chief commercial place is Constantinople, particularly in regard to the trade with Russia. Till within a short period, it distributed the Russian products through the ports of the Mediterranean. The exports of this city, which, under a wise and active government, might become the true mart of the world, are of such little importance, that the great quantities of goods, imported for the use of Turkey, have to be paid for, almost wholly, with gold and diamonds. In this port, the English, French, Italians and Dutch obtain the produce of Poland, the salt, the honey, the wax, the tobacco and the butter of the Ukraine; the hides, the tallow, the hemp, the canvass, the peltry, and the metals of Russia and Siberia, and, in exchange, give the productions of their own countries.

This business is transacted without the Turks having the slightest part in it.

Hungary. Hungary is considered by Austria as a foreign country, and is circled in by a line of custom officers. The trade of Hungary, therefore, is under different regulations from that of the rest of the empire, and is any thing but favored by the government. Its foreign commerce is, nevertheless, by no means insignificant. The exports are wine, tobacco, gall-nuts, antimony, alum, potash, horned cattle, wool, iron, copper, wheat, rye and barley. The exports by far exceed the imports. Goods can only be introduced through Austria and Turkey, the government having prohibited every other way that might be selected for the purpose.

II. ASIA. The commerce of Asia is mostly inland, carried on chiefly, in Western and Middle Asia, by means of those caravans (called, by a poet, the fleets of the desert), in which, sometimes, more than 50,000 merchants and travellers are collected, while the number of camels is far greater. The central point of this trade by caravans is Mecca, which, during the presence of the caravans, offers to the eye of the traveller a more active trade and a greater accumulation of merchandise than any other city in the world. The muslins and other goods of the East Indies, the productions of China, all the spices of the East, the shawls of Cashmere, &c., are transported on the backs of camels to Mecca, from whence they are scattered over, not only the Asiatic, but also the African continent.

The Arabs, who were, before the discovery of the passage to the East Indies around the cape of Good Hope, the first commercial people of the world, have now no commerce of consequence. Coffee, aloes, almonds, the balsam of Mecca, spices and drugs, and their African imports of myrrh, frankincense and gumarabic, are their chief articles of export. Yemen, rich in the costly productions of nature, resorts for a market to Mecca. The Arabian gulf and the Red sea connect the commerce of Arabia with that of Africa, especially with that of Egypt and Abyssinia.

From Masuah, the capital of Abyssinia, are exported gold, civet, ivory, rhinoceros' horns, rice, honey, wax and slaves; and for these the Africans obtain, in Mocha, or Mecca, and Jedda, cotton, cloves, cinnamon, pepper, musk, ginger, cardamom, camphor, copper, lead, iron, tin, steel, turmeric, vermilion, tobacco, gunpowder, sandal-wood, rice, hardware, arms, and a

number of other kinds of European manufactures. The exports from Aden, an Arab city, on the straits of Babelmandeb, where many Jews reside for the purpose of trade, are coffee, elephants' tusks, gold, and various kinds of gums; for which it imports chiefly East India and Chinese productions. Muscat, a port in the Arabian province Oman, the key of Arabia and Persia, carries on considerable trade with British India, Sumatra, the Malay islands, the Red sea, and the eastern coast of Africa.

Well adapted as the geographical situation of Persia is for commerce, it is pursued, nevertheless, with very little energy, and little enterprise. Its exports consist mostly of horses, silk, pearls, brocades, carpets, cotton goods, shawls, rose-water, wine of Schiras, dates, wool of Caramania, gums, drugs of various kinds, &c. The chief places for Persian trade are the Turkish cities of Bagdad and Bassora. The harbor of Abuschar, or Buschir, on the Persian gulf, is also a mart for Persian and Indian goods. Bagdad, once the centre of a brilliant and extensive commerce, may still be considered as the great mart of the East, though it is by no means what it has been. From Bassora, the productions of Arabia, India, Persia and the Asiatic islands are sent to Bagdad, where they find a very good market, and from whence they are scattered through the other cities of the Turkish empire. By means of the Arab caravans, Europe supplies Persia with goods of all kinds, and even with the productions of America. On the other hand, it has nothing to give but dates, tobacco, and a very moderate quantity of woollen stuffs, its whole trade consisting in the distribution and sale of the products of other countries. Bassora is, by its situation, the mart of the active East Indian, Persian and Arabic trade, carried on in the Persian gulf. Its trade with the East Indies is very considerable, it being the channel through which the Ottoman empire is supplied with the groceries of the East, and with the manufactures of the British possessions in the East Indies.

Asiatic Turkey. The principal port of the Levant is Smyrna, a very important depot of the merchandise of the East and West. The articles exported from the Levant are coffee, cotton, wool, silk, madder, camels' and goats' hair, hides, raisins, figs, pearls, rotten-stone, whet-stones, nutgalls, opium, rhubarb and other drugs. Angora sends to Smyrna, by caravans, considerable quantities of Angora goats'

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hair, and stuffs made of the same material; for the Angora goats' hair is manufactured into camlet, in the Levant itself, and in Europe, especially in England, France and Holland, some of whose camlet manufactories keep agents in Angora, through whom they make their purchases. Damascus is the centre of trade in Syria, and does a good deal of business through the caravans, which go from the north of Asia to Mecca, and from Bagdad to Cairo. Aleppo has much commercial intercourse with Constantinople, Bassora, Bagdad, Damascus and Scanderoon, or Alexandretta, to which places caravans go every year, through Aleppo. Its exports are its own silk and cotton goods, the shawls and muslins of the East Indies, the gall-nuts of Curdistan, copper, pistachio-nuts, and drugs. Alexandretta has some trade of importance. Erzerum is the mart of silk and cotton goods, printed linens, groceries, rhubarb, madder, and East Indian zedoary.

The British East Indies, and the Malay Peninsula. For the long period of 4000 years, the products of India, so important in commerce, have remained the same; for all the commodities and treasures of India, mentioned by the ancients, are, to this day, those for which the nations of the other quarters of the world resort thither, viz., rice, indigo, cochineal and other dye-stuffs, opium, cotton, silk, drugs, cinnamon, cassia, cocoa-nuts, &c. The East India trade is mostly in the hands of the English, under the management of the East India company. Next to the English, the U. States are most extensively engaged in the East India trade. Denmark carries on but an inconsiderable trade with the East Indies, and that once carried on by Sweden is now almost annihilated, although, prior to the late great changes in the government of that country, the Swedish East India company was, of all the commercial societies of Europe, the best regulated, and the most successful in its operations, next to the English. The trade of Portugal with the British possessions in the East Indies is of importance; that of Spain, on the other hand, inconsiderable. Calcutta is the most important commercial city of the East Indies. Besides it, Benares, Guzerat, Oude and Moultan are worthy of note, among the commercial towns of northern India; Madras and Pondicherry, on the eastern coast; Bombay, Surat and Cochin, on the western; Goa, &c. From Queda, on the peninsula of Malacca, are obtained tin, rice, wax, fish maws and sharks' fins; at Salengore, Pahang and Trangano, cloves,

nutmegs, pepper, camphor, betel, ivory, gold dust, tortoise shell, tin, &c. Gold dust is exported chiefly from Malacca. Since 1819, the British government in Calcutta, through sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, has founded, according to his plan, a new commercial town on the fertile, well-wooded island of Sincapore (q. v.), on the south extremity of the peninsula of Malacca, on the straits of this name, which is of extreme importance to the British trade with China, and must destroy the China trade of the Dutch. If Sincapore is made a free port, England will be able to supply from thence all of Further India with the productions of its industry.

China. The trade which China carries on with Europe, British India, the U. States of America, Cochin-China and Siam, with Japan and the other Asiatic islands, is very considerable. The British imports into China are partly shipped by the East India company, partly by private merchants. From 1781 to 1791, the company sent thither to the amount of £3,471,521 in goods, and £3,588,264 in bullion; from 1792 to 1809, £16,502,338 worth of goods, and £2,466,946 in bullion. The exports which the company made to England, amounted, from 1793 to 1810, including duties, freights, &c., to £41,203,422, and they were sold for £57,896,274, leaving the company a net profit of £16,692,852. As the English East India company trades more extensively with the Chinese than any other body, we shall subjoin the following official statement of its exports of tea and raw silk from the port of Canton, for each of the following ten years, as given in the appendix to the report of the committee of the house of lords, printed in 1821.

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having increased 387 per cent. in 25 years. The exports of tea by the East India company, in this time, have also greatly increased. The company's export trade from Europe to China has long been stationary. The imports of the nations on the continent of Europe into China consist chiefly of gold bullion, for which tea is received; but these imports are small, since most of them obtain their tea from the English and Americans. With Siam, Cambodia, Cochin-China, the Asiatic islands and Japan, China has a very active intercourse, and, of late, with Russia also, both by land through Kiachta to Irkutsk, &c., and by water. The Dutch, English and Americans have factories at Canton, the French an agent there or at Macao, the Spaniards an agent at Macao, where the Portuguese have a colony.

From Siam and Tonquin are exported tin, ivory, diamonds and other precious stones, gold dust, copper, salt, betel, pepper, wax, silk, timber and lackered wares, and the commerce of these two countries is mostly in the hands of the Chinese and Portuguese. The trade of Cochin-China is mostly in the hands of the Chinese. The exports are sugar, silk, gold, betelnuts, ebony, Japan-wood, buffaloes' horns, dried fish and fish-skins. The Chinese empire is so vast, and the variety of the products of the different provinces so great, that the inland commerce of this world in itself has withdrawn the attention of the people from the foreign trade, which oppressive regulations have injured. Formerly, however, Chinese vessels went to Arabia, and even to Egypt.

Japan. Since the expulsion of the Portuguese from Japan, the commerce of this country has been almost wholly domestic. The only foreigners, with whom the Japanese still have any trade, are the Chinese and the Dutch, and these are limited to the single port of Nangasaki.

The Chinese supply the Japanese with rice, common porcelain, sugar, ginseng, ivory, silks, nankeen, lead, tin plates, alum, &c.; and, in return, receive copper, camphor, lackered wares, pearls, coals, and a metallic composition, called sowas, consisting of copper and a small quantity of gold. The Dutch obtain chiefly copper, camphor, lacker and lackered wares. Only 2 Dutch and 12 Chinese vessels are allowed to enter the harbor of Nangasaki annually. After the arrival of a vessel and the performance of the preliminary ceremonies, the goods are sent on shore. Then come the imperial officers (for the trade with foreign countries is the monopoly of the emperor), who examine the quality and the quantity of the goods, deliberate together, and fix the price of the native commodities that are demanded in return. Foreigners must submit to these conditions, or keep the goods which they have brought. The Japanese merchants can obtain foreign goods only by purchasing them of the emperor. In the manufacture of silks and woollens, porcelain and lackered wares, the Japanese are in no degree inferior to the Europeans. In the manufacture of hardware, they have also attained great skill. The Japanese sabres and daggers are very excellent, and are perhaps surpassed only by the sabres of Damascus. In polishing steel and all other metals, they are also very skilful, and their fine porcelains are much superior to the Chinese. In the beginning of the 17th century, the English began to trade with Japan; but the Portuguese missionaries, and afterwards the Dutch, succeeded in prejudicing the government against them. In 1673, the attempt to renew the trade was again frustrated by the Dutch. On account of the great advantages which it was thought this trade would ensure to England, a third attempt was made in 1699, and the factory at Canton was instructed to enter into connexion with Japan, if by any means possible. The result, however, did not satisfy expectation, and all further attempts have been given up. In 1813, however, when Java was subjected to Great Britain, the East India company had some slight intercourse with Japan. The Russian mission to Japan, under Krusenstern, in 1805, was no less unsuccessful than the English had been. (See Golownin.)

The Islands of Amboyna, Banca, the Bandas, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, &c.— From Amboyna are exported cloves, to confine the cultivation of which solely to

this island, the Dutch took great pains to extirpate all the clove-trees on the neighboring islands. For this purpose, also, the government of Amboyna, with a numerous retinue, still makes a journey every year to the other Dutch islands. Banca is celebrated for its tin mines, and the exportation of this tin to China is of much importance, as the Chinese prefer it to the English on account of its malleability. About 4,000,000 pounds of tin are obtained annually. The Banda islands produce nutmegs and mace. The staple exports from Batavia, where all the goods of the Dutch East India company are deposited, are pepper, rice, cotton, sugar, coffee and indigo. 6,250,000 pounds of pepper, part of which is raised on the island itself, part brought from Bantam, Sumatra, Borneo, and the other islands, are annually stored in the magazines. Both coffee and sugar have also been cultivated here, of late years, to the amount each of 10,000,000 pounds. Borneo has, besides pepper, gold in dust and bars, wax, sago, camphor, the last of the most excellent quality. In addition to the Dutch and English, the Chinese have here an active trade. The exports of Ceylon are cinnamon, pepper, coffee, tobacco, betel, cocoa-nuts, drugs, timber, pearls, precious stones, corals, &c. Of the Philippines, the principal are Lucon or Manilla, and Magindanao or Mindana. The exports are indigo, sugar, silk, gold dust, quassia, pepper, tortoise-shell, wax, precious stones, silver, sago and tobacco. The trade of the Philippines with China_and_South America is considerable. Manilla produces sugar, the best Asiatic tobacco, indigo, and a kind of hemp. The Prince of Wales' island, from its situation between India, China and the Eastern isles, has an important trade. Its exports are chiefly benzoin, pepper, betel-nuts, groceries, metals, East India zinc, cochineal, eagle-wood, Japan-wood, elephants' teeth, sugar, and silver bullion. Sumatra carries on considerable trade. The exports are gold dust, betel, benzoin, pepper, camphor, Japan-wood, sulphur and rattans, wax, gum-lac, groceries, tin, &c.

III. AFRICA. The want of navigable rivers, and the immeasurable deserts by which the fruitful regions of Africa are separated, form an insurmountable obstacle to that extension of commerce, which the great fertility of this quarter of the globe would promise. In addition to the intercourse of the interior, the commerce of Africa has its sources in Egypt, the Barbary states, on the west coast in

Guinea, in the neighborhood of the rivers Gambia, Niger and Senegal, at the cape of Good Hope and the Portuguese colonies, and on the coasts of the Red sea. The inland trade is carried on by means of caravans. The African caravans consist of from 500 to 2000 camels. The three principal countries from which they proceed are Morocco, Fez and Egypt. The chief articles of the inland trade of Africa are salt, gold and slaves. The greatest caravans go from the western coast and from the interior by way of Timbuctoo, the great mart of the inland trade, and other places of depot, to the eastern coast, where the most important commercial places are Natal (on the coast of Lagoa), Soffala, Quilimane, Mozambique, Querimba, Quiloa, Mombaza, Melinda, Brava, Magadoxo, Berbera, Zeila and Adel. Quilimane, Mozambique and Melinda are Portuguese settlements. From Adel, Zeila, Berbera and Brava are exported, mainly, gold dust, ivory and incense, for which the products of Arabia and the East Indies are returned. There is considerable trade between the British settlements in the East Indies and Mozambique, and the English obtain elephants and hippopotamus' teeth, tortoiseshell, drugs, cowries, gold, &c.

The Barbary States. The commercial intercourse of the Barbary states with Europeans is very inconsiderable and vacillating, and the little business which is transacted is mainly in the hands of the French, British and Americans. The exports consist of olive-oil, wax, wool, wheat, gums, almonds, dates, aromatic seeds, ivory, leather, hides and ostrichfeathers. Even the coral fisheries on the coasts (from cape Rosa to cape Roux) are in the hands of the French and Italians; and the annual produce of about 50,000 pounds of coral is more than $420,000. But a far more important commerce is pursued by the Barbary states with Arabia, Egypt, and the interior of Africa. Their caravans are met with in Mecca, Cairo and Alexandria. The chief commercial cities are Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, Sallee, and Agadeez, or Santa Cruz, and in Morocco, Mogadore. Before the French revolution, the commerce of Algiers was wholly in the hands of a company of French merchants at Marseilles, who had regular settlements in the ports of Bona, La Calle and Il-Col. But, in 1806, the dey conveyed, for $50,000, the possession of those ports to England. The chief ports of export of Algiers are Bona and Oran. Tunis is the most important commercial

state in Barbary. Its chief harbors are Biserta, Susa and Soliman. Tripoli has little trade, and its exports consist mostly of saffron, ashes, senna leaves and madder. The trade of Morocco and Sallee is also of little importance. Agadeez, or Santa Cruz, is the most southerly harbor of Morocco, and was once the centre of a very important trade. Fez is still such a centre between the ports of Morocco, the Mediterranean sea and the interior of Africa. (See Timbuctoo and Wassanah.)

Cape of Good Hope. The trade with the cape of Good Hope is extremely advantageous to Great Britain. In 1809, the importation of English goods exceeded £330,000, while the exports of the colony (mostly Cape wine) did not amount to £6000. The amount of the trade has since been very much enlarged by the increase of colonization. The average exports from Great Britain to the cape of Good Hope amount to $2,119,000, and the imports into England from the Cape to $1,561,000.

Egypt. From its uncommonly favorable situation in the centre of three portions of the globe, this country seems destined by nature to be also the centre of their commerce; but it has altogether lost its former high rank in the commercial world, since it has ceased to be the channel of the India trade. It has, nevertheless, considerable inland trade, which extends into the interior of Africa. Three caravans go thither, every year, from Egypt. One goes to Sennaar, and collects the productions of this country and Abyssinia; another to Darfour, and the third to Fez, whither the productions of Bornou, and all the countries lying along the Nile, are brought. Other caravans exchange Egyptian commodities for those of the East Indies and Arabia. But the most considerable is that which consists of the united caravans of Abyssinia and Western Africa, and goes annually to Mecca. The exports of Egypt are rice, corn, cotton, myrrh, incense, opium, dates, mother-of-pearl, ivory, gums and drugs of various kinds, hides, wax, &c., most of which go to Constantinople, the Barbary states, Great Britain, Venice and Marseilles. It also exports the productions of Arabia, e. g. Mocha coffee. The chief commercial cities are Cairo and Alexandria, since 1819 united again by a canal. Cairo has two ports, Rosetta and Damietta. France sends to Egypt woollen cloth, red caps, fringes of all kinds, and ornaments of dress, ordinary china ware, arms, &c. England sends muslins, and cloths of

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