the assemblies convoked by the king. The lands which did not belong to the king, or were not given to his followers, seem originally to have been the property of the county, a part or lot in which belonged only to those capable of doing military duty, and constituted the common property; the folk-land, allodial, or reeveland of the Anglo-Saxons; the salland of the Franks; while the lords' property, or thane-land, or book-land of the Anglo-Saxons, was conferred only upon the followers of the king, or of the great territorial lords, upon condition of the performance of personal service. This last union of the king and the great lords with their vassals threatened the overthrow of the freedom of the communities, as all who were not thus dependent on the great were left without protection from violence; but, after the 10th century, the commons rose again, in consequence of the influence of several causes, partly from the wealth accumulated by the practice of arts and trades, partly from the growth of towns around the castles of the knights. In these towns, which had obtained their freedom, artisans of various sorts were collected, who were distinguished for spirit and boldness. It frequently happened, that, in the course of time, the knights-the original protectors of these communities were expelled. In some cases, however, they became mingled in the mass of citizens. Many traces of this state of society are still to be found, especially in England, exhibited in the various constitutions of the cities and towns, and in the representation of boroughs in parliament. Only those towns which were in existence at the establishment of these Germanic institutions, or which remained as relics of the Roman and British times, owe their representation in parliament to their importance as towns. All other places hold their privileges as royal boroughs, which were originally the sole possessors of the corporate rights of towns. The privilege of voting in cities is chiefly confined to the descendants of the old free families, or depends upon certain burgage tenures, and is thus in the possession of a certain number of independent voters; while, in the boroughs, the freedom of the borough is sometimes the common property of all the inhabitants of the place, and sometimes depends on certain burgage tenures. As these boroughs were created for the defence of the country, and the protection of the royal interests, we may see in this the reason why they are so much more numerous in the frontier counties, 34

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and especially in Cornwall, than in other parts. The formation and constitution of municipal communities, in other European states, has taken a nearly similar course, although the description of this course, as given by Eichhorn, is not of universal application. The Burgwardeien, which are found to have existed in Meissen and Brandenburg in the 10th century, are nearly related to the English boroughs, in like manner as the older towns and cities, which have remained as specimens of the Roman times and institutions, have served as models for towns of modern origin, and for the establishment of their city-privileges (libertas Romana). These municipal communities seem to have taken an important part in the representation of the country; in the establishment of which, the old notions respecting the character and rights of a community seem to have had as great or a greater share than the modern and most unjust notion of a representation of the landed interest. England is the only country in which the boroughs and the free possessors of landed estates have continued to form one body or chamber of representation-the commons-to which they have always belonged; while, in other countries, the gentlemen or knighthood have united themselves to the nobility, and thus become separated in their interests from the towns. But, in almost all parts of the European continent, the representatives of the towns appear to have lost much of their influence, to which various causes seem to have contributed. The most important among them has been the internal corruptions of the institutions of the towns themselves. The constitution of the German towns has generally suffered an injurious change, by the establishment of a chief magistrate for life, who has the power of appointing his inferiors in office, who are naturally selected from among his own friends and dependents. Though, in the large towns, the high and independent character of the burgesses, and their republican institutions, have been strong obstacles to these abuses, or the occasion of their being quickly corrected (as has been the case in all the imperial cities, and in the large towns of other countries); on the other hand, there has grown up, in the small towns, a contracted policy and cast of feeling, in accordance with the diminutiveness of their influence and importance, which has made them proverbial, in Germany, for narrowness of spirit. In this manner, all true public spirit has been lost. The mismanagement and corruption of the governments

of the towns have destroyed their prosperity, and, with it, the old citizen spirit; and few towns are to be found in Germany, where just complaints are not heard of the corruption of old institutions, and the waste of the property of the place. These defects in the government of the towns, and the frequent contests between the burgesses and their magistrates, attracted the attention of government still more, from the fact that another branch of the popular authority-the administration of justice had entirely departed from its original character. This portion of their authority had been wrested from the burgesses by the increasing subtleties of the law, and had passed into the hands of functionaries who were seldom able to command public confidence and respect; and the town-officers could, in truth, be no longer regarded as the agents of the municipality, even before they began, both in name and in reality, to assume the character and duties of state and policeofficers. This occurred first in France, where the royal treasury was, for a short time, supplied by the sale of these offices. This example was followed by other states, especially in Germany, after the time of Frederic II of Prussia, where it was first seen, that, upon every reform of the towns and their institutions, something valuable was taken from them, and sacrificed to the cause of absolute authority. In Prussia, an approach to a freer government of municipalities took place by the ordinance of Nov. 10, 1808, which has served as a model for several other German states, but, if carefully examined, will appear valuable only as demonstrating how necessary some approach to popular institutions is, even in an absolute monarchy. It is the work of the Prussian minister Stein. (q. v.) In republics, the organization of the municipalities, the establishment and due regulation of popular rights and privileges, is of the greatest importance. (See the articles City and Town.) COMNENI; an extinct family of sovereigns, according to an unsupported tradition, of Italian origin, which numbered, on the throne of Constantinople (from 1057 to 1204) and on that of Trebisond (from 1204 to 1461), 18 emperors, besides 19 kings, and numerous independent princes. (See Byzantine Empire, and Trebisond). When the crusaders had overturned the throne of the Comneni in Constantinople, and established the Latin empire there, in 1204, a prince of the ancient house of the Commeni founded an independent state at Trebisond, in Asia Minor, where

he was governor. The last sovereign of this house was David Comnenus. From him, it is said, was descended Demetrius Comnenus, a French captain of dragoons, who died without children, at Paris, in 1821, with the title of maréchal de camp. But his descent cannot be historically traced. Ducange, an accurate, faithful and learned historian, asserts, without hesitation, that Mohammed II, the conqueror of Constantinople, after he had obtained the empire of Trebisond, so called (which was scarcely as large as a French department), from the emperor David, by a treaty, sent for this prince and his seven children to Constantinople. In order to get possession of the income which had been secured to the Greek prince, he ordered him to be put to death, with all his children, at Adrianople, in 1462, under pretence of a conspiracy. This is confirmed, according to Ducange, by all contemporary writersChalcondylas, Ducas, Phranzes. A later historian maintains that one of his children was carried off unhurt to Laconia (Maina), where the family maintained a war with the Turks, generation after generation, for 200 years. Betrayed, but not conquered, Constantine Comnenus emigrated at last from Maina, landed, in 1676, at Genoa, accompanied by several Greeks, and planted a colony in the isle of Corsica. His posterity governed this district, inheriting the dignity and title of capitano; but, when Corsica was joined to France, they lost their possessions. This account, however, is not credible; for no mention whatever is made in contemporary history, either of a child of David Comnenus, or of his posterity, after 1462. Demetrius Comnenus, indeed, who pretended to be the last branch of the family of Corsican colonists (born in Corsica, in 1750), was recognised by the French government as a descendant of David Comnenus, by a royal decree of 1782, registered duly by the parliament; but this recognition was effected by M. de Vergennes, merely from political motives. The fall of Constantinople was then supposed to be at hand, and it was for the interest of France to secure the claim of legitimate inheritance to a descendant of that family in France. If the sceptre of the grand seignior had then been broken, France would have supported the claims of the French officer; for, in the diploma of Louis XVI, he was recognised as the lawful successor of the emperors of Trebisond. Captain Demetrius Comnenus emigrated in the beginning of the revolution, fought under the banners of the prince of Condé, returned, in 1802, to France, and

lived, till 1814, on a pension of 4000 francs, which Napoleon had assigned him. Louis XVIII confirmed this stipend, and made him maréchal de camp, and knight of St. Louis. He died Sept. 8, 1821, and left a manuscript work, in which he labored to show that the Greeks had risen from a state of barbarism even before the time of Homer. A remarkable member of the family was the princess Anna Comnena, daughter of the emperor Alexius I, who flourished in the first half of the 12th century. In the history of her father, whom she praises with all the affection shown by madame de Staël towards her parent, she gives a lively description of the manners of her age, and the state of the court of Constantinople. (See Gibbon's Roman Empire, c. 48.)

COMO, LAKE (lago di Como; anciently, lacus Larius); a lake in the LombardoVenetian kingdom, at the foot of the Alps. Towards the middle, it is divided into two branches, by the point called Bellaggio. The branch extending towards the S. W., to the city of Como, goes under the same name; that which turns to the S. E., to Lecco, takes the name of lake Lecco. The length of the lake to Bellaggio is five leagues; that of the S. W. branch, six leagues; and that of the S. E. branch, four leagues. The greatest width is one league. More than 60 rivers and rivulets empty into it, and the Adda passes through it. It is about 700 feet above the level of the sea, and 191 feet above the territory of Milan. Lake Como, the most delightful of all the lakes at the foot of the Alps, is surrounded by mountains 8 or 9000 feet high, which descend towards the lake, and terminate in hills, resembling terraces. It is bordered by delightful gardens and country seats. Many delicious fish, particularly trouts, are taken in the lake. The neighboring country is rich in minerals, iron, copper and lead.

COMO (anciently Comum); capital of the province of Como, in the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, 9 leagues N. N. W. of Milan, in a delightful valley on lake Como (q. v.); lat. 45° 48′ 20′′ N.; lon. 9° 5' 12" E. It is a bishop's see. The number of the inhabitants is about 7500, many of whom travel about with little manufactures, such as mirrors, spectacles, little pictures. Even in the time of the Roman emperors, this taste for emigration manifested itself. The inhabitants of Como were then to be found in all parts of Italy, in the capacity of masons. This city contains some antiquities, and 12 beautiful churches; also a cabinet of natural history

and natural philosophy. The 11th and 12th centuries were the flourishing period of Como. It was then at the head of the Ghibeline party, and the rival of Milan. The province of Como, which constituted the department of Lario in the kingdom of Italy, includes 315,634 inhabitants, in 530 communities.

COMORO, OF COMMORRO, or GOMARA ISLANDS; islands in the Indian ocean, between the northern extremity of Madagascar and the continent of Africa. They are four in number-Angareja (called also Comoro), Mohilla, Johanna and Mayotta. The inhabitants are uncivilized, but harmless. Europeans have never formed settlements there. These islands are extremely fertile, well stocked with cattle, sheep, hogs, and birds of various kinds. They produce, likewise, sweet and sour oranges, citrons, bananas, honey, sugarcanes, rice, ginger, cocoa-nuts, &c. They are situated between lat. 11° 20′ and 13° 5 S., and lon. 43° 10′ and 45° 30′ E. The population, consisting of Negroes and Arabs, is estimated at 20,000.

COMPANY, in military language; a small body of foot or artillery, the number of which varies, but, in the English army, is generally from 50 to 120, commanded by a captain, a lieutenant and an ensign, and, sometimes, by a first and second lieutenant, as in the artillery and flank companies of the line. In the Austrian and Prussian armies, companies are stronger. In France, the strength of a company has varied very much. In former times, a company consisted of from 25, 30, 40, up to 200 men; in 1793, of 80 men: in 1808, they had 137 men; in 1814, 72 men; in 1823, 80 men. In 1820, a French battalion was composed of 8 companies, and a regiment of 3 battalions.

COMPANIES FOR CARRYING ON THE FURTRADE. (See Fur-Trade.)

COMPANIES, JOINT STOCK. (See Joint Stock Companies.)

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY is the science which investigates the anatomy of all animals with the view to compare them, to explain one by means of the others, and to classify the various kinds, according to their anatomical structure. As comparison, and the formation and extension of genera and species, are the delight of the naturalist, comparative anatomy is one of the most interesting sciences. The want of an organ in certain classes of animals, or its existence under different modifications of form, structure, &c., cannot fail to suggest interesting conclusions concerning the office of the same part in the

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human subject. Thus comparative anatomy is of the highest importance to physiology. Haller observes, very justly, Physiology has been more illustrated by comparative anatomy than by the dissection of the human body." Without comparative anatomy, the natural history of animals would always have remained in a backward state, more so even than mineralogy without the aid of chemistry. And it is to comparative anatomy that we owe, in a great measure, that more liberal view of nature, which belongs to modern times, and considers all nature, man included, as one unbroken whole. Cuvier's Leçons d'Anatomie comparée (in 5 large 8vo. volumes) is an excellent work. Blumenbach's works on comparative anatomy, also, are highly valuable. His Handbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie und Physiologie (Göttingen, 1804), has been translated by Mr. Lawrence, under the title of a Short System of Comparative Anatomy (London, 1807-1808,8vo.). Gall has rendered great service to science by investigations in comparative anatomy, though he has sometimes fallen into extravagant conclusions in reference to phrenology.

COMPASS, THE MARINER'S. The ancients, whose only guides on the trackless waters were the heavenly bodies, so often. covered by clouds, could not venture far from shore. It is the compass which has enabled men to steer boldly across the deep. The inventor of this great instrument shares the fate of the authors of many of the noblest inventions. He cannot be precisely ascertained. Some call him Flavio Gioja; others, Giri, a native of Amalfi, in Naples, at the beginning of the 14th century: but there are proofs, that the use of the magnetic needle, in pointing out the north, was known at an earlier period in Europe, and that a contrivance similar to a compass went under the name of marinette in France, as early as the 12th century. The English first suspended the compass, so as to enable it to retain always a horizontal position, and the Dutch gave names to the divisions of the card. The earliest missionaries to China found the magnetic needle in use in that country. -The compass is composed essentially of a magnetic needle, suspended freely on a pivot, and containing a card, marked with the 32 points of direction into which the horizon is divided, and which are thence called points of the compass. The needle always points to the north (excepting slight variations), and the direction which the ship is steering is therefore determined by a mere inspection of the card. This

apparatus is enclosed in a brass box, with a glass covering, to allow the card to be seen without being disturbed by the wind. This again is freely suspended within a larger box, so as to prevent, as much as possible, the needle from being affected by the motion of the vessel. The whole is then placed in the binnacle, in sight of the man at the helm. On the inside of that part of the compass-box which is directly on a line with the vessel's bow, is a clear black stroke, called the lubber-line, which the steersman uses to keep his required course; that is, he must always keep the point of the card, which indicates his course, coinciding with the lubber-line. The compass here described is called the steering compass. Several other sorts are used for different purposes, but the principle on which they are constructed is the same. Some land compasses are of the size of a watch-seal, and actually fixed in such seals; others of the size and external form of a pocket watch. Sometimes a little sundial is affixed to compass-boxes. The box, of whatever material it is made, must have no particle of iron in its construction.

COMPASSES, or PAIR OF COMPASSES; a mathematical instrument, used for the describing of circles, measuring lines, &c. The common compasses consist of two branches or legs of iron, brass, or other metal, pointed at bottom, and joined by a rivet, whereon they move as on a centre. We have compasses of various kinds, and contrivances accommodated to the various uses for which they are intended.

COMPIÈGNE; a French town, in the department de l'Oise, 15 leagues N. N. E. of Paris. It has 6260 inhabitants, crooked streets and ill-built houses, and some manufactures and commerce. Formerly, it was supported only by the court, which occasionally resided here. It has two fairs, one in April, and one in November. Charles VI took this town from the duke of Burgundy in 1415. In 1430, Joan of Arc was taken prisoner here by the English.

COMPLUTENSIAN POLYGLOT. (See Alcala de Henares.)

COMPOSITE ORDER. (See Architecture.) COMPOST, in husbandry and gardening; several sorts of soils, or kinds of earthy matter mixed together; or a mixture of earth and putrid animal substance, or vegetable substance; in fact, any artificial manure to assist the soil in the work of vegetation. (See Colonies, pauper.)

COMPOSTELLA, or SAN JAGO DE COMPOSTELLA (anciently Brigantium); a city of Spain, and capital of Galicia; 98 miles

W. of Astorga; lon. 8° 30′ W.; lat. 42° 52 N.; population, about 12,000. It is situated in a beautiful plain, on all sides surrounded with agreeable hills, between the Sar and Sarella, which unite about half a league below. It is the see of an archbishop. In the metropolitan church are preserved, as the people believe, the remains of St. James, the patron of Spain, to whom the church is dedicated, and from whom the town is named. There are 12 parish churches, 14 religious houses, and 4 hospitals. The annual revenue of the archbishop is said to amount to 60,000 ducats. A university was established here in the year 1532, consisting of 4 colleges. The order of St. Jago takes its title from this city, the knights of which possess 87 commanderies, with an annual income of 200,000 ducats.

COMPOSTELLA, NUOVA ; a town of Mexico, in Guadalaxara, built by Nuñez de Guzman, once the see of a bishop, removed to Guadalaxara; 300 miles W. N. W. Mexico; lon. 106° 11′ W.; lat. 21° 20′ N. There are silver mines in the neighborhood.

COMPOUND BLOWPIPE; an instrument producing an intense heat from the combustion of oxygen and hydrogen gases. The gases are contained each in a separate gas-holder, and are expelled by the pressure of a column of water, not being allowed to mix until they arrive nearly at the aperture of a pipe tipped with platina, when they are inflamed. The heat produced is sufficient to melt all the earths, and the natural as well as artificial compounds which they form with each other. The metals, also, are brought by it into a state of ebullition, and are even completely volatilized. This modification of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe, as it has sometimes been called, which was invented by doctor Hare, of Philadelphia, is far preferable to that of Newman, or rather of Brooke, who appears to have been the first inventor, since it is not attended by any danger, whereas the original instrument, in which the gases were previously mingled, was liable to a violent and hazardous explosion. The compound blowpipe has been found of occasional use in the arts, where an intense and long-continued heat is required.

COMPRESSIBILITY; the quality of bodies of being reducible, by sufficient power, to a narrower space, in consequence of their porosity, without diminishing their quantity of matter. All bodies are probably compressible, though the liquids, in particular offer an almost invincible resist

ance to compression. Those bodies which occupy their former space when the pressure is removed are called elastic.

COMPRESSION MACHINES; instruments for compressing or condensing elastic fluids. Such, for instance, is an air-pump with cocks, by which the air can be condensed in tight vessels. For the compression of liquids (for instance, water), Abich has constructed a metallic cylinder of 21 inches 512 lines high, and 33 inches 7 lines in diameter, 1 inch 24 lines thick. This cylinder is filled with water, and an iron piston, covered with leather, and exactly fitting the bore, is pressed into it. For this pressure, a screw was first used; but, in order to produce a better application of the power, a lever was afterwards employed to force down the piston. A mark on the piston shows, by its distance from a little ledge across the cylinder, how far the piston has been forced down, and, when the force subsides, how far it has been driven up. (See Zimmerman on the Elasticity of Water, Leipsic, 1779.) The latest experiments on the compressibility of water, we owe to Oersted (Annales de Chimie et de Physique) and Mr. Perkins, so distinguished for his mechanical inventions.

COMUS (from the Greek); the name of a merry company of young people, who came singing into the houses of their friends and mistresses, to entertain them with their music. Comus was also the name of the songs sung at festive entertainments. This name is not given, by early ancient writers, whose works have been preserved, to a divinity presiding over such meetings, who is a creation of later times, which gave him the name of the festive songs in which were celebrated the praises of the giver of social joys. He is first mentioned by Philostratus.

CONCAVE. (See Convex.)

CONCAVE LENS; an epithet for glasses ground hollow on the inside, so as to reflect on the hollow side.

CONCENTRATION (in Chemistry;) the act of increasing the strength of fluids, by volatilizing part of their water.

CONCENTRIC; an epithet for figures having one common centre.

CONCEPTION, IMMACULATE. The belief is entertained in the Roman Catholic church, that the virgin Mary was born without the stain of original sin. St. Bernard, in the 12th century, rejected this doctrine, in opposition to the canons of Lyons, and it afterwards became a subject of vehement controversy between