naming of a thing; for instance, Frantiskowati se (s read as sch), to use frequently the name Francis; macechowati se, to use frequently the name step-mother. It possesses also the patronymic nouns ; for instance, kralowec, the king's son. It indicates concisely that an action is completed; as, dopsati, to write to an end. It contains the inceptive verbs; for example, hrbatim, I am becoming hunch-backed; and many others.-Secondly, the Bohemian language has much expressiveness and energy, as it is not weakened by a number of articles, auxiliary words, conjunctions and words of transition, but is able to represent the objects of imagination, of passion, and all the higher emotions of the poet and orator, in a quick, vigorous and lively manner, by its brevity, heaping together the most significant words, and arranging the connexion of the parts of speech according to the degree of feeling to be expressed, so as to give the style spirit and energy, or gentleness and equability. The Bohemian designates many objects by the imitation of natural sounds. Thus the names of many animals are taken from their voices; as, kruta, the turkey; kachna, the duck. Many plants he names from their effects; as, bolehlaw, hemlock (from head-ache). The conciseness of the language is increased by the absence of auxiliaries in the greater part of the verbs; as, dam, I shall give. The preterites, in the third person, singular and plural, express a meaning still further condensed, as the variation in the last syllable is made to designate the sex; for example, psal, psala, psalo, he, she, it has written; psali, psaly, psala, they have written; narozen, narozena, narozeno, he, she, it has been born. Thus the absence of the personal pronouns in the verbs, of the article in the substantives, and the use of many participles and participial forms, give to this language the expressiveness and power of the Latin. In like manner, the Bohemian saves many prepositions and much circumlocution of other kinds, by the use of the instrumental, agreeing with the Latin ablative; for instance, secenjm mece hlavu mu st' al (t read like te), with a blow of the sword he has cut off his head. This language is, therefore, very well fitted for the translation of the Latin classics. By the use of the part. præt. activi, the Bohemian can designate, as well as the Greek, who has really performed the action contained in the predicate of the accessary clause, which the Latin, with his ablative absolute, or

του

participle passive, must leave always undefined and dubious; for instance, Πινδαρος Πασικλέα αποδείξας επίτροπον και παιδος και των χρημάτων απήρεν εις Πελοποννησον ; Pindarus vstanowiw Pasiklea za porucnjka syna swého a geho gmenj, táhl do Peloponnesu; Pindarus constituto Pasicle tum filii tum bonorum tutore, in Peloponnesum abiit. This contributes to the perspicuity and precision of the Bohemian language. Every notion, moreover, is expressed by a peculiar word; for example, the verbs zjti, strjhati, krágeti, rezati, denote to cut with the scissors, with the sickle, with the knife, and with the sithe; while most languages use one verb, to cut, in all these / cases. In the subtilty of grammatical structure, the Bohemian is like the Greek, and has the advantage over the Latin and other languages. In speaking of two hands, two eyes, &c., the dual number is used; e. g., ruce, oci, &c. The language is also capable of expressing the idea of duration referring to an indefinite past time, like the Greek aorist; for instance, kupowal dum, ale nekaupil ho, which we have no means of rendering precisely, for kupowati means to buy, and kaupiti means also to buy: accordingly the phrase would be, literally, he bought the house, and bought it not which would be a contradiction: he was about to buy the house, but did not buy it, would be also an incorrect expression of this idea, for the action was already going on-he was already buying. The language affords several preterite tenses, which are distinguished with great subtilty; as, præt. sing. unit. (time which has only past once)-kaupil, he has bought once; plusquamperf. primum-kupowal, he had purchased for a long time; plusquamperf. secundum-kupowawal, he had purchased formerly several times; plusquamperf. tertium-kupowawawal, he seldom had purchased in former times; where, by adding the auxiliary verb byl, a time still longer passed may be expressed, though this is very seldom used; for instance, byl kupowawal, he had purchased in times long past. Another advantage of the language consists in the many future tenses by which the Bohemian denotes not only the time, but also the duration, and the more or less frequent repetition of the action; viz. futurum simplex—kaupjm, I shall purchase once; futurum durativum

for instance, budu kupowati, I shall be purchasing for a long time; fut. frequentativum-budu kupowawati, I shall purchase several times; and fut. iterativum -budu kupowáwati, I shall be purchasing

very often. Not less manifold in signification, and equally subtile in the determination of time, are the participles and the participial constructions. The determination of the sex and the number by the final syllable of the participle gives the Czechish language no small preference above others. The Bohemian can express himself as elegantly and politely, and at the same time as concisely, as the Greek with his optative; for instance, nechalo toho, she may let it go; veinil, let him do it. The small, connective particles of speech, which the Bohemian has, in common with the Greek, must be considered as so many touches and shadings, by which the whole idea and feeling is more distinctly expressed. The Greek άλλα μεν, γαρ, δε, τε, &c. agree with the Bohemian ele pak, wsak, li, z, t'; only the three latter are always affixed to a word. Finally, the free, unrestrained arrangement of the words contributes much to perspicuity, as the Bohemian is less fettered than any of the other modern languages to a particular construction.-By a happy mixture of vowels and consonants, and by a combination of the latter favorable for the pronunciation, the language has also much euphony, though many call it rough on account of the r (read rsh); but the sound of entire words, not that of the single letters which compose them, determines the roughness or smoothness of their pronunciation; besides, every language, on account of the difference of the feelings which it has to convey,―some gentle, others harsh and violent,-ought to be able to form some harsh sounds. The terminations of the various declensions and conjugations are mostly vowels, or the smoother consonants. In general, the Bohemian has a natural melody, like that of the Greek; for the tongue stops longer on a syllable containing a long vowel, á, é, j, u, y, than on one containing a short vowel. In the Bohemian alphabet of 42 letters (a number in which it is surpassed only by the Indian, the most copious of known alphabets, and the Russian, which comes next to it), there are to be found all the sounds of the other languages. The English sound of ts the Bohemian expresses with c, the English y with g, the sh with ss or s, the Italian ce or ci with c, the French ge and gi with the z, the Italian u with the y, the gn with the n, the English w with the w, particularly at the end of words. Hence his alphabet enables him to write all languages so as to give their correct pronunciation, and to pronounce

them easily and well, so as to be considered by Frenchmen, Germans and Italians as their countryman. He never confounds smooth and rough letters; his singing is easy and graceful, and the Bohemian opera pleases, like the Italian, as it suppresses no syllables, but gives a full sound to each word. It is very seldom that combinations of difficult consonants are to be found in the Sclavonic idioms, and these may be softened by the freedom of construction which the language allows. The euphony of the language is also the reason why the Bohemian takes a rank in music inferior only to that of the Italian. Throughout Europe, Bohemian musicians are to be found: the distinguished musicians of Austria are mostly from Bohemia. Taste and feeling for music almost always keep pace with the melody of the language of a nation.

Bohemian Literature has five periods. The first extends from the mythological times to 1409. It is certain, that, among the Sclavonian tribes, the Czechi were the first who cultivated and fixed their language. (See Sclavonians and Sclavonic Language.) It affords no written documents of remote antiquity, unless we believe the Runic characters to have been in use before the introduction of Christianity. We know, however, that the language of that period was similar to the present, from the names of the gods, dukes, rivers, cities, mountains, which have been preserved, such as Perun, Prcemysl, Boriwog, Wltawa, Bila, Praha, Tetin, Krkonose. The Sclavonian apostle Method, and the philosopher Constantine, called Cyril, made the Sclavonians in Moravia acquainted with Christianity. From thence it penetrated, under duke Boirwog, to Bohemia, and thus the people of this country received the GræcoSclavonic ritual in the year 845. The same Constantine invented for the sounds of the Sclavonic language the CyrillicSclavonic alphabet-Az, Buky, Wiedi, Glagol, Dobro, &c., borrowed mostly from the Greek. In later times, the Glagolitic alphabet sprung up, of which, however, less use was made. When the Latin church supplanted the Greek in Moravia, Bohemia and Pannonia, the Latin alphabet came also into use, instead of the Cyrillic. In Bohemia, the Cyrillic character was in use only with the monks of Sazawa, who observed the Sclavonic ritual. King Wratislaus, intending to introduce it again in other places, and asking the permission of pope Gregory VII, received a refusal. As the Latins endeav

ored to annihilate all the writings of the old ritual, and the Sclavonic language was, in many cases, obliged to give way to the Latin, Bohemian literature suffered from popery incalculable injury: hence we possess, from the earlier centuries, but a few insignificant remains in the characters above mentioned. In the 10th century, the Bohemians had a school at Kudet, in which they learnt Latin. Their most ancient relic is the hymn (Hospodine Pomiluyny) of bishop Adalbert (Wegtech), a native Bohemian, which is sung to the present day, even by the Russians and Poles. Some think it of still greater antiquity. From the 11th century, we have no complete works; but, in Latin documents, Sclavonic names are frequently found. The 12th and 13th centuries were more fertile. When king Wratislaus issued the summons for the renowned expedition to Milan, all Prague resounded with the songs of the valiant young knights; but none of them has been preserved. Zawis Z. Rozmberka wrote, in 1290, several good poems. The Bohemians possess the remains of a collection of lyric-epic national songs, without rhyme, which seem to have been of great merit; but only two sheets of parchment, in duodecimo, and two small strips, have been preserved. Mr. Hanka, keeper of the Bohemian national museum, discovered these valuable remains in a room in the church at Königinhof, in a pile of neglected papers. The manuscript appears to have been written in the years 1290 and 1310: some of the poems may be still older: the more is the loss of the greater part of them to be regretted. This whole collection consisted of 3 books, as may be concluded from the inscription of the remaining chapters of the 3d book, which are inscribed 26th, 27th, 28th. 14 poems are preserved, which constitute those 3 chapters. (See Rukopi's Kralodworsky wydany od Wac, Hanky, 1819.) We cannot determine the subject of the first song, Boleslaw, by the part which has come down to us; the second poem, Wihori Dub, calls upon duke Udalrich to drive the Poles from Prague (1003); the third, Benes, celebrates the repulse of the Saxons who advanced from Görlitz; the fourth relates Jaroslaw Sternberg's victory over the Tartars, near Olmütz, in 1241; and so on. Göthe found these national songs worthy of particular attention. They deserve, perhaps, to be placed by the side of Ossian's poems. A Bohemian psalter, and a legend, in rhyme, on the 12 apostles (the latter only a fragment

of 70 verses, at Vienna), have also been preserved; likewise, the Complaint of a Lover on the Banks of the Muldau (Weltawa), in prose; a fragment of a history of the passion of Jesus, in rhyme; the hymn Swaty Waclawe; besides a number of poems, songs, fables and satires, in verses of four feet, also in rhyme. The 14th century is more productive. Under the emperor Charles IV, who promoted the cultivation of the Bohemian language, the university of Prague was founded, in 1348. In the golden bull, he commanded the sons of the German electors to learn the Bohemian language. Under his son, the emperor Wenceslaus, all decrees were written in Bohemian, which formerly were in Latin. Prague was then not only the most populous city in Germany, but also, on account of its splendid court and the wealth of its citizens, the centre of the arts and sciences. Dalemil Mezericky wrote a history of Bohemia in verse; Ondreg Z. Dube, a collection of Bohemian laws, in 3 vols.; Warinec Z. Brezowa, a history of the Roman emperors, and translated Mandeville's Travels; Pribik Pulkawa, a Bohemian history; and Benes Z. Horowic, a history of the empire to the time of Wenzel. This period affords, also, many vocabularies, poems and songs; also a translation of the life of Alexander the Great; the life of the emperor and king Charles IV; the description of the heroic feats of Pliehta of Zerotin, and of the battle of Cressy, in 1346, and an account of the death of king John, which celebrates his fame and that of the other Bohemian heroes; a description of the tournament in 1315; the expedition of king John against count Matthias of Trenzcin, &c.-With Huss commenced the second period, from 1409 to 1500, which elevated the character of the Bohemian language and nation. The assembled fathers at Constance and Bâle beheld with astonishment, among the Bohemian nobility and citizens, men not only distinguished for their intrepidity, but able, also, to explain with profound learning the word of God. The Bohemian nobility of those times not only wielded with a vigorous arm the national weapon of their country in defence of the rights of the nation, but stood, also, in the first rank of scientific cultivation. Th prevalence of religious disputes caused the Bible to be generally read and understood. Eneas Sylvius, then pope, says, Pudeat Italia sacerdotes, quos ne semel quidem novam legem constat legisse, apud Taboritas vix mulierculam invenies, quæ

de Novo Testamento et veteri respondere nesciat. (Com. in Dict. Alph. Reg., sec. ii, 17.) Huss of Hussinetz translated Wickliffe's book Trialogus into the Bohemian tongue, and sent it to the laymen as presents. The treatise of the six errors he caused to be inscribed, in Bohemian, on the walls of the chapel of Bethlehem. He wrote his first collection of sermons when at the castle of Kozy (1413), besides an appeal to the pope, a commentary on the ten commandments, an explanation of the twelve articles, two sermons on the Antichrist, the Triple Cord, and several excellent hymns. His letters from the dungeon in Constance to the Bohemians were translated by Luther into Latin, accompanied with a preface, and printed at Wittenberg in 1536. He, and Jakobellus and Jerome, improved and distributed the Bohemian Bible, of which several copies have been preserved to our times. How many of his works perished by the hands of the Jesuits is unknown. The cruel execution of the Bohemian martyrs Huss and Jerome, for their faith, was considered by their countrymen as an outrage upon the whole nation, of which they complained bitterly; many satires, also, were written at that time. Of Zisca of Trocnow, one of the greatest generals in history, several letters, and his rules of war, have been preserved. From this period, there have come down to us, also, several war-songs of the Taborites; as

Kdoz gste Bozj bogownjoy a zakona geho,

a Obrazu Gegjm), and an essay on the love of God. The most famous book of his was one in 40 chapters, which he called Kopyla (Last). Many controversial writings of this period might be mentioned. Bohuslaw of Sechtic wrote the work Zrcadlo wscho Krestanstwa (Mirror of the whole of Christianity). In this, the difference between the conduct of the apostles and of the Roman bishops is represented by various drawings. Three other drawings represent Huss preaching, and at the stake; besides 16 leaves, upon which the life and the letters of Huss are contained. After two pictures, of which one represents the worship of the Hussites, the other the expedition of the Taborites, comes a satirical letter of Lucifer: another plate represents the blind hero Zisca at the head of his army, under which there are quotations from the Taborite war-song, Neprátel se nelekeyte-Na koristech se nezastawugme (Fear not the foes-Stop not for plundering): besides a dialogue, in which the father tells his son how the cup and the law of God had been introduced into Bohemia. The whole consists of 118 leaves, of which 88 have pictures. Stibor of Cimburg and Towacow wrote the very ingenious work on the possessions of the clergy, which he dedicated to king George, in 1467, and the collection of the rights and privileges of the margraviate of Moravia. Walcowsky Z. Knezmosta wrote on the vices and hypocrisy of the clergy; P. Zidek wrote, in 3 vols., the Art of Governing, 1471

(Well now, ye monks, be chaste), &c. ;

also some songs of Prague. Martin Lupác undertook, with the assistance of some learned men, the labor of translating the whole New Testament, and rendered it, in many places, more correct and plain. The church-service was now performed entirely in the Bohemian language. The bishop of the Taborites, Nicholas of Pelhrimow, wrote a Bohemian and Latin theological tract. Kristan Prachatitzky wrote a book on medicine; Martin Kabátnik, a Journey to Jerusalem; P. Prespole, the mining laws of Kuttenberg and Iglaw, which have since become so famous. Johann Rokycana, H. Litomericky, W. Koranda and others wrote different works on religious subjects. P. Chelcicky gave an explanation of the Lessons of the Gospel for every Sunday; wrote the Net of Faith (Sit Wiry), a discourse on the 13th chapter of Revelation, of the beast and its image (O Selme

treats of the duties of a king with regard to the public welfare; the second, on his personal behavior; the third is a general view of history, from the beginning of the world to the time of the author, wherein frequent hints are given, as to what a king should do, and what avoid. William Cornelius of Wsehrd wrote nine books on the laws, judiciary offices and the register of lands in Bohemia. King George was the author of an ordinance respecting measures, money, weights, &c. V. Mladienowic, who, when notary at Constance, was an eye-witness of the execution of Huss, wrote an account of his life. This used to be read in the Bohemian churches. Procopius continued the rhyming chronicles of Dalemil. J. Lodkowic related his Journey to the Holy Sepulchre. Sasek of Mezyhor wrote Notes and Travels through Germany, England, France, Spain, Portugal and Italy, of the Bohemian baron Loew of Rozmital and Vlatna (whom he accompanied); a contribution

to our knowledge of the manners of the 15th century, which was published by Jos. Edm. Horky, in a German translation printed at Brünn, 1824. M. Gallus, Albjk, Chrislan, Zidek, J. Cerny, J. Blowic and Sindel, wrote on medicine, astrology and agriculture. As early as 1447, we have an anonymous work on the grafting of trees. We have also the rhyming legend of the 10,000 knights, a translation of the fables of Æsop, the council of the beasts and birds, in prose and verse, in 3 vols. (Placj Rada). Each lesson, which flows in rhyme from the mouths of the animals, is preceded by the natural history of the animals and the moral. It was printed three times in the Bohemian language, and published at Cracow in Latin verse, 1521, 4to. There is, likewise, a satire, in 132 verses, on the persecution of the priests of the Taborites; the Maitraum of Hynek of Podiebrad, the younger son of king George; besides several vocabularies and romances, among which is Tkadlecek, which has been published at Vienna, in a German translation. Of the Bible, 14 translations have come down to us, besides 10 of the New Testament. The oldest, of the year 1400, is in Dresden. The typographic art made a rapid progress in Bohemia. The first printed work was the epistle of Huss from Constance, in 1459; the second, the Trojan War, in 1468; the third, a New Testament, in 1474; the whole Bible, in 1488; the first almanac, in 1489.-The third age, from 1500 to 1620, may be called the golden age of the Bohemian language. During those dreadful tumults, in which, not only in this kingdom, but also in the neighboring countries, populous cities became heaps of ashes, and innumerable villages entirely disappeared, the peculiar inclination of the nation to investigation, and their predilection for science and art, developed themselves. The cultivation of learning-in other countries, with only a few exceptions, the monopoly of the clergy-was, in this favoured land, open to the whole nation. All branches of science were elaborated, and brought to an uncommonly high degree of improvement for that time. The purpose of this work does not allow us to enumerate all the authors of this age, since, under Rodolph II alone, there were more than 150. Gregory Hruby of Geleni translated the work of Petrarch, De Remediis utriusque Fortuna. W. Pisecky translated from the Greek the Exhortation of Isocrates to Demonikos. John Amos Comenius wrote

54 works, some of which were very excellent. He published his Janua and an Orbis Pictus, which were translated, in his lifetime, into 11 languages, have passed through innumerable editions, and are not yet surpassed. In all the north of Europe, Comenius attracted attention by his projects for improving education, which were deliberated upon even by the diet of Sweden and the parliament of England. The hymns of this and the earlier ages, part of which have been translated by Luther, may serve as standards for all languages. In Prague alone, there were, at this period, 18 printing-presses; in the country-towns of B. 7, and in Moravia also 7: many Bohemian books, too, were printed in foreign countries, as in Venice, Nüremberg, Holland, Poland, Dresden, Wittenberg and Leipsic.-The fourth period begins with 1620, and ends with 1774. After the battle at the White mountain, the whole Bohemian nation submitted entirely to the conqueror. The population of most of the cities and of whole districts migrated, in order not to be false to their faith. More than 70,000 men, and almost the whole of the nobility, all the Protestant clergy, scholars and artists, in general, the most cultivated part of the nation, left their native country. Of these emigrants, the greater part formed the flower of the army of count Mansfeld. Hence the 30 years' war depopulated Bohemia more than any other country, since these fugitives endeavored to regain their native country by repeated invasions. Nothing, however, was so disadvantageous to Bohemian literature as the introduction of monks, who were mostly Italians, Spaniards and Southern Germans, who condemned every Bohemian work, as heretical, to the flames, so that individuals boasted of having burnt about 60,000 manuscripts, which they took from the people by force, after searching their houses. Such works as escaped the flames were shut up in monasteries, in carefully-secured rooms, fastened with iron grates, doors, locks, bolts and chains, and often inscribed with the warning title Hell. Instead of these excellent remains of the classical times of the country, they gave the Bohemians nonsense of all kinds; accounts of hell and purgatory, the reading of which made many of the populace maniacs; though even this stuff was, in many cases, burnt, and mostly forbidden. The fugitives established at Amsterdam, Dresden, Berlin, Breslau and Halle, printingpresses, and sent to their brethren in