should pass; and suspicions have not been wanting, that Paez was either incited, or sustained, by intimations received from the same quarter. On these things it would be premature now to decide. Certain it is, that, to all appearance, the central departments alone, answering to New Grenada, continued faithful to the constitution. These circumstances most imperiously demanded the presence of B., whether as the cause and object of the public distractions, or as the means of composing them. Accordingly, he set out from Lima in September, 1826, committing the government to a council of his own appointment, and responsible to him alone, with general Santa Cruz at its head, and leaving the whole of the Colombian auxiliary army in Peru and Bolivia. B. made all haste to reach Bogotá, which he entered Nov. 14, 1826, and, assuming the extraordinary powers which, by the constitution, the president is authorized to exercise in case of rebellion, he remained only a few days in the capital, and pressed on to stop the effusion of blood in Venezuela. He went, accompanied merely by a small escort, although forces were in readiness to sustain him if requisite, and all the demonstrations of insurrection vanished at his approach. He reached Puerto Cabello December 31st, and immediately issued a decree, dated Jan. 1, 1827, giving assurance of a general amnesty to the insurgents, on their peaceably submitting to his authority, and engaging to call a convention for the reform of the constitution. He had a friendly meeting with Paez, and, soon afterwards, entered Caraccas, where he fixed his head quarters, having the northern departments under his immediate personal authority, and separated from the body of the republic, which proceeded in its ordinary routine. B. and Santander had respectively been reëlected to the offices of president and vice-president, and should have been qualified anew as such in January, 1827. But, in February, B. addressed a letter from Caraccas to the president of the senate, renouncing the presidency of the republic, and expressing a determination to repel the imputations of ambition cast upon him, by retiring to seclusion upon his patrimonial estate. Santander, in reply, urged him to resume his station as constitutional president, convinced that the troubles and agitations of the country, if they were not occasioned by the intrigues of B. himself, might at any moment be quieted by his lending the authority of his name, and

his personal influence, to the cause of the constitution. But distrust, suspicion and jealousy of the conduct and intentions of B. now filled all the friends of republican institutions. He had recorded his confession of political faith, to use his own expression, in the anti-republican Bolivian code, and he was believed to be anxious for its introduction into Colombia. When his renunciation of the presidency was submitted to the consideration of the congress, a portion of the members urged that body to accept the renunciation. They publicly accused him of being in concert with Paez; of having designedly thrown the whole nation into discord and confusion, in order to create a false impression of the necessity of bestowing upon himself the dictatorship. But a majority of the members insisted upon his retaining the presidency, and required his presence at Bogotá to take the constitutional oaths. Before he came, however, they had passed a decree of general amnesty; a decree for assembling a national convention at Ocaña, and a decree for reestablishing constitutional order throughout Colombia. His arrival was hastened by unexpected events, touching him personally, which had occurred in Peru and the southern departments. Not long after his departure from Lima, the returns of the electoral colleges were received by the council of government, by which the Bolivian code was pronounced to be the constitution of Peru, and B. the president for life. The constitution was accordingly promulgated officially, and was sworn to, by the public functionaries in Lima, Dec. 9, 1826, the anniversary of the victory of Ayacucho. At this time, the Colombian auxiliary army in Peru was cantoned in three divisions; one stationed in Upper Peru, and two in Lower Peru; one of these at Arequipa, and one in Lima. This third division consisted of veteran companions of B.'s triumphs, and was commanded by his personal friends, generals Lara and Sands. Notwithstanding the attachment of these troops to B., they had lately been growing distrustful of his designs; and, although they did not feel disposed, it would seem, to thwart his views upon Peru, they took fire immediately when they saw cause to believe that he had similar views upon their own native Colombia. The consequence was, that, in the short space of six weeks after the new constitution was solemnly adopted, they came forward, and revolutionized the government of Peru. So well were their measures taken, that, Jan. 26, 1827,

they arrested their general officers without any conflict or opposition; placed themselves under the command of Bustamante, one of their colonels; and announced to the inhabitants of Lima, that their sole object was to relieve the Peruvians from oppression, and to return home to protect their own country against the alleged ambitious schemes of B. The Peruvians immediately abjured the Bolivian code, deposed B.'s council of ministers, and proceeded, in perfect freedom, to organize a provisional government for themselves. Arrangements were speedily made, after this bloodless revolution was effected, to transport the third division to Guayaquil, according to their own desire. They embarked at Callao, March 17, and landed in the southern department of Colombia, in April, part of them proceeding for Guayaquil, and part for Cuença and Quito, uniformly declaring their object to be the restoration of constitutional order, in opposition to any designs upon the republic entertained by B. Intelligence of these events reached B. while he was still in the north of Colombia. Rousing himself instantly from his long-continued inactivity, he made preparations for marching to the other extremity of the republic, and reducing the third division. But these troops, finding the government was in the hands of the regular national executive, had peaceably submitted to general Ovando, who was sent, by the constitutional authorities, for the purpose of taking the command. B. meanwhile signified his consent to be qualified as president, and proceeded, with this intent, to Bogotá, where he arrived Sept. 10, took the oaths prescribed by the constitution, and resumed the functions belonging to his official station. To external appearance, therefore, Colombia was restored to tranquillity, under the rule of her constitutional magistrates. But the nation was divided between two great parties, and agitated to its centre by their opposite views of the political condition of the country. B. had regained the personal confidence of the soldiers and officers of the third division, who expressed the deepest repentance for their distrust of his character, and their entire devotion to his interests. But the republican party, and the friends of the constitution, with Santander at their head, continued to regard his ascendency over the army, and his political movements, with undisguised and not unfounded apprehension, universally accusing or suspecting him of a desire to emulate the career of Napoleon. They

looked to the convention of Ocaña, which was to assemble in March, 1828, for a decided expression of the will of the nation in favor of the existing republican forms. The military, on the other hand, did not conceal their conviction that a stronger and more permanent form of government was necessary for the public welfare; that the people were unprepared for purely republican institutions, and that B. ought to be intrusted with discretionary power to administer the affairs of Colombia.-In 1828, B. assumed the supreme power in Colombia, by a decree, dated Bogotá, Aug. 27, which gives him authority to maintain peace at home, and to defend the country against foreign invasions; to have the command of the land and sea forces; to negotiate with foreign powers; to make peace and declare war; to make treaties; to appoint the civil and military officers; to pass decrees, and ordinances of every description; to regulate the administration of justice, &c. The decree provides, however, that he is to be assisted in the exercise of executive power by the council of ministers. If B. is to be the Cæsar of South America, even his enemies admit that, like Cæsar, his purposes are ultimately good. He desires the pure administration of justice, encourages the arts and sciences, fosters all the great national interests, and, if he attains absolute power, will probably use it wisely and nobly. But it is premature to denominate him the Washington of the South, before it well appears whether the liberties of his country are safe from his ambition.-In his person, B. is described as being of ordinary stature; ungraceful in his air and movements; thin and spare, but capable of great endurance; of an olive complexion, with black, coarse hair, thin in front; broad, bushy eye-brows overshadowing an eye somewhat sunken, but full of fire and expression. His intellect is undoubtedly of the highest order, and his general character of that ardent, lofty cast, which civil commotions are apt to form, and which qualifies its possessor to ride on the tempest. His ordinary statepapers do not bespeak a very pure taste, nor an understanding ever subjected to any well-directed cultivation, and are frequently conceived in language which even the lofty idiom of his vernacular tongue will hardly sanction. Being now only 46 years of age, he may have a long career of varied fortune yet before him, wherein he may do much, either to fill the friends of republican institutions with sorrow, or to build for himself a durable

monument of glory. (Restrepo's Colombra, vols. 3-6; Columbia, vol. 2; Amer. An. Register, vols. 1 and 2.)—There has lately appeared a work, entitled Memoirs of Simon Bolivar, and of his principal Generals, with an Introduction, &c., by general H. L. V. Ducoudray Holstein; Boston, 1829. The book is a violent philippic against B., and evidently colored too highly to be a safe authority. It does not become the biographer to adopt the views of a political partisan, nor to pronounce a decisive judgment until the career of his subject is closed.

BOLIVIA; the name of a country in South America. It is bounded N. W. by Peru, N. E. and E. by Brazil, S. by Buenos Ayres or the United Provinces of South America, and W. by the Pacific ocean and Peru. It is elevated and mountainous, giving rise to several large tributaries, both of the Amazon and La Plata. It includes lake Titicaca. It contains rich silver mines, of which those of Potosi, that were formerly very productive, are the most celebrated. The town of Chuquisaca, or La Plata, is the capital. Some of the other principal towns are Potosi, Charcas, Oropesa, Oruro, La Paz and Cochabamba. The population has been recently estimated at 1,000,000 or 1,200,000. -This republic dates its origin from the battle of Ayacucho, fought Dec. 9, 1824, in which general Antonio Jose de Sucre, at the head of the Colombian forces, defeated the viceroy La Serna, and insured the independence of the country. It consists of the provinces known under the Spanish government as Upper Peru, and then governed as a dependency of the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. Olaneta maintained a show of opposition for a short time after the battle of Ayacucho; but Sucre quickly drove him into the province of Salta, where his forces were dispersed by the Buenos Ayrean authorities, in April, 1825. No obstacle now remained to prevent the organization of an independent government. A congress assembled at Chuquisaca, in August, 1825, and resolved to establish a separate republic, independent both of Lower Peru and of Buenos Ayres, to be named Bolivia, in honor of the liberator Bolivar. Among other testimonials of their gratitude towards him, they requested him to prepare the draft of a constitution for the republic, lodging the authority of president, meanwhile, in the hands of Sucre. Bolivar accordingly prepared the project of a constitution, which he presented to them May 25, 1826, accompanied by an address,

containing his general views upon the subject of government. By this code, the powers of government are distributed into four sections-the electoral, legislative, executive and judicial. The electoral body is composed of persons chosen, for a period of four years, by the citizens at large, at the rate of one elector for every hundred citizens. The legislative power resides in three chambers, the first of tribunes, the next of senators, and the highest of censors. The tribunes are to be chosen for a period of four years, half of the chamber being renewed every second year; and the senators for eight years, half of their body being renewed every fourth year. Between these two bodies, the ordinary duties of legislation are apportioned in a manner peculiarly artificial and inconvenient, together with various other functions of a judicial and executive character. The censors are for life, and their business is to watch over the government, to accuse the executive before the senate, to regulate the press, education, and the arts and sciences, to grant rewards for public services, and to denounce the enemies of the state. The executive power resides in a president for life, a vice-president and four secretaries. The president commands all the military and naval forces, and exercises the whole patronage of the government, nominating all the civil and military servants of the state, officers of the army, navy and treasury, foreign ministers, and the vice-president, who is to be his successor: he is, moreover, without any responsibility for the acts of his administration. The judicial power is regulated so as to secure the due administration of justice; and the private rights of individuals are carefully protected by suitable guarantees. This form of constitution, it is evident, would give the executive such preponderating power, that all the measures of government would, in fact, be subject to his will, and he would be, to all intents and purposes, the elective prince of a monarchy, limited in theory, but absolute in operation. This code was presented to the constituent congress of Bolivia, which assembled at Chuquisaca, in May, 1826, and by that body adopted as the constitution of the republic. The 9th of December, the anniversary of the battle of Ayacucho, being fixed upon as the period when it should be carried into effect, Sucre resigned his discretionary authority into the hands of congress, and solicited them to appoint a native of the country to be his successor. But they resolved

that he should retain the executive power until the election of a constitutional president should take place. Sucre consented to continue in office until that time; requiring, however, that the electoral colleges should present a candidate for the high office of president, previous to the assembling of the constitutional legislature. This resulted in the election of Sucre as president for life under the constitution. Whether the choice was entirely a free one or not is yet uncertain. A large body of Colombian troops remained in Upper Peru, under circumstances analogous to the situation of other troops of the same nation in Lower Peru, and, of course, affording like reason to presume that military influence may have affected the election.-The geographical position of B. being mostly inland, its political condition is less accurately known than that of the neighboring countries, and less an object of general interest. In the natural progress of things, it would seem likely to be reunited to Lower Peru, from which it was arbitrarily severed by the Spanish government. But hitherto the congress of the Rio de la Plata has refused to recognise its independence, insisting that the limits of their republic shall be coextensive with the ancient boundaries of the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, and, of course, claiming the provinces of Upper Peru by the same title under which they lay claim to Paraguay and the Banda Oriental. But it is not probable, in any event that can be reasonably anticipated, that Bolivia will again be joined to Buenos Ayres. (Const. of Bolivia; Amer. An. Reg. vols. 1 and 2.)

BOLLANDISTS; a society of Jesuits in Antwerp, which has published, under the title Acta Sanctorum (q. v.), the wellknown collection of the traditions of the saints of the Roman Catholic church. They received this name from John Bolland, who first undertook to digest the materials already accumulated by Heribert Roswey.

BOLLMAN, Erich, a man distinguished for knowledge, character and enterprise, born in 1770, at Hoya, in Hanover, went, in 1792, to Paris, to practise as a physician. Here he saved count Narbonne from the Jacobins. In 1794, he resolved to free Lafayette from his prison in Olinütz. By his efforts, and those of Mr. Huger, a gentleman belonging to the U. States, Lafayette was enabled to quit his dungeon, Nov. 8, but was unfortunately retaken soon after. B. was cast into prison, but after a while set at liberty, and

banished from the Austrian dominions. He afterwards settled in the U. States, and subsequently went to England.

BOLOGNA (Bononia Felsinia); one of the oldest, largest and richest cities of Italy, with colonnades along the sides of the streets for foot-passengers. It is called la grassa (the fat); lies at the foot of the Apennines, between the rivers Reno and Savena, and contains 65,300 inhabitants and 8000 houses, with manufactories of cordage, soap, paper, artificial flowers and arms. B. is the capital of the papal delegation of the same name; the secular concerns of which are administered by a cardinal legate, who resides here; whilst the archbishop directs in spiritual affairs. A gonfaloniere, chosen every 2 months, with 50 senators and 8 elders from the citizens, form a republican government, which has almost the whole management of the affairs of the city. The people of B. voluntarily submitted to the papal see in 1513, being tired of the party struggles among the nobles, by which the strength of the state was exhausted. B. has an ambassador in Rome, whose duty it is to maintain the limitations of the papal authority, according to the constitution, and who, after every new election of a pope, presents complaints of the encroachments of his predecessor. The city chooses, also, one of the judges composing the high court of appeals at Rome. Her armorial bearings are even now surrounded by the charmed word Libertas. The pope, by the constitution, can exact no other tax than the excise on wine. During three centuries, the papal government endeavored to introduce in B. the excise on corn (annona), but could not succeed. The rich nobility of the papal states live in B., and are on bad terms with the head of the church.-This city is also the residence of the old Bolognese patrician families, who have given many popes to the church. The most liberal men in the papal dominions are to be found among the learned of this city. In 1816, the nobility, scholars and citizens founded a Socratic society for the promotion of social happiness, which was, however, suspected of Carbonarism. B. was long renowned for its university, founded, according to tradition, by Theodosius the younger, in 425, which, in the centuries of barbarism, spread the light of knowledge over all Europe. It once had 10,000 students, but the number at present is only 300. Here the famous Irnerius taught the civil law in the 11th century; and men like Bulgerus, Marti

nus, Jacobus and Hugo attracted pupils from every quarter. The university formerly possessed so much influence, that even the coins of the city bore its motto, Bononia docet. The law school enjoyed the greatest fame. Its teachers had the reputation of inculcating principles favorable to despotism, and were consequently rewarded by the favor of the emperors and of the Italian sovereigns. During 1400 years, every new discovery in science and the arts found patrons here, and the scientific journals prove that curiosity on these subjects is still awake in B. A citizen of B., general count Fern. Marsigli, founded, in 1709, the instituto delle scienze, and gave it a library of almost 200,000 volumes; to which, in 1825, the abbate Mezzofanti, professor of Oriental languages, was appointed librarian. This learned man speaks a large number of living languages correctly and fluently (for instance, German, in several dialects, Russian, Hungarian, Walachian, the language of the Gipsies, &c.), without ever having left B. The foreign troops in Italy gave him opportunities for learning them. Count Marsigli founded and endowed, also, an observatory, an anatomical hall, a botanical garden, and accumulated valuable collections for all branches of science and art. These are at present connected with the accademia Clementina of pope Clement XI. In the 16th century, the famous painters and sculptors Caracci, Guido Reni, Domenichino and Albano founded a school, to which their works have given great reputation. (See Painting.) There were, even as early as the 12th and 13th centuries, great painters in B. Francesco, called il Francia, was famous in the 15th century. The chief place of the city is adorned by several venerable buildings: among them are the senate hall (which contains a number of excellent pictures and statues, and the 200 folio volumes of the famous natural philosopher Ulysses Aldrovandus, written with his own hand, as materials for future works), the palace of justice of the podestà, and the cathedral of St. Petronio, with its unfinished front and the meridian of Cassini drawn upon a copper plate in the floor. Among the 73 other churches, the following are distinguished: S. Pietro, S. Salvatore, S. Domenicho, S. Giovanni in Monte, S. Giacomo maggiore, all possessed of rich treasures of art. The collections of works of art are numerous: they are part of rich family fortunes, transmitted in trust, and are continually increased by each generation. The gal

leries Sampieri and Zambeccari formerly excelled all others, but are now surpassed by those of Marescalchi and Ercolani. The collection of the academy of painting, endowed, in modern times, by the municipality, principally with the treasures of abolished churches and monasteries, is rich, and full of historical interest. The admired fountain of the market is deficient in nothing but water. It is adorned with a Neptune in bronze, by John of Bologna. The towers degli Asinelli and Garisenda were formerly objects of admiration; the former for its slenderness, which gave it the appearance of an Oriental minaret; the latter for its inclination from the perpendicular, which amounted to 14 feet. It has since, however, been reduced to one third of its former height, from precaution. B. has always been famous for cheap living, and has been chosen as a residence by many literary men. Gourmands praise it as the native country of excellent maccaroni, sausages, liquors and preserved fruits. The schools for training animals enjoy, likewise, some reputation. The pilgrimage to the Madonna di S. Lucca, whose church is situated at the foot of the Apennines, half a league distant from B., and to which an arcade of 640 arches leads, annually attracts a great number of people from all parts of Italy.

BOMB; a large, hollow, iron ball or shell, formerly often made of cannonmetal, and sometimes of an oval form, with a hole in which a wooden fuse is cemented, and with two little handles. Bombs are thrown from mortars. They are filled with powder and combustible matter (which consists of equal parts of sulphur and nitre, mixed with some mealed powder), and are used for setting fire to houses, blowing up magazines, &c. The charge in bombs of 74 pounds contains from 5 to 8 pounds of powder, and 1 pound of the other composition abovementioned. In bombs of 10 pounds, it amounts to 1 pound of powder and from 2 to 3 ounces of the mixture. The fuse, which is hollow, and filled with powder and other inflammable ingredients, sets fire to the charge. The length and the composition of the fuse must be calculated in such a way that the bomb shall burst the moment it arrives at the destined place. Bomb-shells are generally

cast somewhat thicker at the bottom than above, that they may not fall upon the fuse and extinguish the fire; yet they are, at present, often cast of an equal thickness in every part, because it has been found