that the fuse remains at the top, notwithstanding. As early as the 7th century, balls, filled with burning matter, were thrown from vessels of clay, then from machines called blydes or manges, or with hand-slings made of a small net of iron wire. In 1238, James I, king of Arragon, used, at the siege of Valencia, a kind of large rockets, made of four parchment skins, which burst in falling. Afterwards, large iron balls, heated red hot, came into use. In the middle of the 15th century, prince Rimini Sigismund Pandulf Malatesta invented mortars and bombs. They consisted, at first, of two hollow hemispheres of metal, filled with powder, and held together by chains. By degrees, they received their present shape. An English engineer, Malthus, whom Louis XIII took into his service, introduced them into France, and used them first (1634) at the siege of Lamotte, in Lorraine. The grenades, which thrown from howitzers, are easily distinguished from the bombs, which are cast from mortars. The first are used only in the field, the latter in sieges. The Prussian general von Tempelhoff has in vain attempted to bring 10 pound mortars into the field.—In order to make a wall bombproof, it should be three feet and a half thick.

are

BOMBAST, in composition; an attempt, by strained description, to raise a low or familiar subject beyond its rank, which, instead of being sublime, becomes ridiculous. Its original signification was, a stuff of soft, loose texture, used to swell out garments.

BOMBAY; a presidency, island and city in British India; lat. 18° 56′ N.; lon. 72° 7 E. The island was formerly subdivided into several smaller ones, but many thousand acres, once entirely under water, have been recovered, and the two ranges of hills which cross the island have thus been united by a line of fertile valleys. It is of little importance as regards its internal resources, but in a commercial point of view is of great value. Its proximity to the main land gives it a facility of communication with all the different points of that long line of coast, as well as with the shores of Persia and Arabia. The island is easily defended, and the rise of the tide is sufficient to allow the construction of docks on a large scale. The surface is either naked rock or low ground exposed to inundation: the quantity of grain, which it is capable of producing, is, therefore, very small. The causeway which connects it with Sal

sette, an island lying between B. and the coast of Malabar, affords, however, an easy way of introducing provisions. When first known to Europeans, it was considered a very unhealthy place; but it has been improved by draining and embankments. The population, in 1816, was 161,550, of whom 104,000 were Hindoos, 28,000 Mohammedans, 11,000 native Christians, and 4300 English. There were also about 13,000 Parsees, who here found an asylum from the persecutions of the Mohammedans, and are almost the exclusive proprietors of the island. On a narrow neck of land, near the south-eastern extremity of the island, stands the city, which is about a mile in length and a quarter of a mile in breadth. It is surrounded by fortifications, which have been gradually improved, in proportion to the growing importance of the place. It is the seat of government for the southwestern part of the British possessions in India. In front of the fort is an esplanade: at the commencement of the hot season, those Europeans, who are obliged to have their principal residences within the fort, erect bungalows on this spot, which are, many of them, elegant buildings, but unfit to resist the violence of the monsoons. As soon as the rains begin, they are taken down, and preserved for another year. There are three government residencies in the island. one within the fort is used principally for holding councils, and for despatching business. It is a spacious, dismal-looking building, like many of the other large houses in B. The European society here is neither so numerous nor so expensive as that in the other presidencies; but, if not rivals in splendor, they are quite equal in comfort and hospitality to their countrymen in Calcutta or Madras.-As this place is the emporium of all the northwestern coast of the peninsula, and of the Persian and Arabian gulfs, its trade is very considerable. To China it sends a large quantity of cotton. Pepper, sandalwood, gums, drugs, pearls, ivory, gems, sharks' fins, edible birds' nests, form the remainder of the cargoes for Canton. Hemp, coffee, barilla, manufactured goods from Surat, and other articles, are sent to Europe. The trade to America is inconsiderable.-The company's marine establishment consists of 18 cruisers, besides boats: the military and marine corps amount to less than 3000 men. Besides the governor and council, stationed at the city, there are magistrates and commercial residents in the chief towns of the

The

different provinces subject to their gov-. ernment. There is one supreme court of judicature, held under a single judge, called the recorder.-Since 1814, B. has been a station of the American board of commissioners for foreign missions, and, in 1828, they had 4 missionaries and a printing press employed here and in the vicinity; with 16 schools for boys, containing 1049 pupils, and 10 for girls, containing 577.-B. was obtained by the Portuguese, in 1530, from an Indian chief at Salsette; by them it was ceded to Great Britain, in 1661, and, in 1668, it was transferred, by the king, to the East India company. From the commencement of the last century, it has gradually increased in importance, and has now attained a high degree of prosperity. It is difficult to fix, with precision, the extent of the territories included within the presidency of B., as some districts belonging to the native powers are intermingled with them. They may be calculated at about 10,000 square miles, with a population of 2,500,000.

BOMBELLES, Louis, marquis de; born 1780, at Ratisbon, where his father was French ambassador at the diet. His mother had been governess in the royal family (des enfans de France), and an intimate friend of the virtuous Elizabeth, sister of Louis XVI. The son inherited a feeling of devotion for the family of Bourbon. Under the protection of prince Metternich, he was sent, in a diplomatic capacity, to Berlin, and when, in 1813, the king left this city to declare himself against Napoleon, he carried the archives of the Austrian embassy, in the absence of the ambassador, to Silesia. In 1814, at the entry of the allies into Paris, he was appointed, by the emperor of Austria, to carry to the count of Artois the white cockade, and was repeatedly sent to Denmark. In 1816, he went to Dresden, as Austrian ambassador, and married Ida Brun, the daughter of the poetess of this name. Since 1821, he has been Austrian ambassador in Florence, Modena and Lucca.

BOMB-KETCH; a vessel built for the use of mortars at sea, and furnished with all the apparatus necessary for a vigorous bombardment. Bomb-ketches are quilt remarkably strong, to sustain the vialent shock produced by the discharge of the mortars. The modern bomb-vessels generally carry two 10 inch mortars, four 68 pounders, and six 18 pound carronades; and the mortars may be fired at as low an angle as 20 degrees; their

principal purpose, at these low angles, being to cover the landing of troops, and protect the coast and harbors. A bombketch is generally from 60 to 70 feet long, from stem to stern, and draws 8 or 9 feet of water, carrying 2 masts, and is usually of 100 to 150 tons burden. The tender is generally a brig, on board of which the party of artillery remain till their services are required on board the bomb-vessels.

BONA (the Aphrodisium of Ptolemy); a seaport of Algiers, 66 miles N. N. E. Constantina; lon. 7° 36′ E.; lat. 36° 32′ N. Pop. 8000. This town is built above a mile south of the ancient Hippo, or Hippona. The harbor, which is situated to the east of the town, is capacious, and a considerable trade is carried on here in corn, wool, hides and wax. The situation is good, being near the mouth of the Seibouse, and, with proper care, it might be made one of the most flourishing towns in Barbary.

BONA DEA; a name given to Ops, Vesta, Cybele, Rhea, by the Greeks, and by the Latins to Fauna or Fatua. She was so chaste that no man saw her, after her marriage, but her husband; for which reason, her festivals were celebrated by night, in private houses, and all statues of men were veiled during the ceremony.

BONALD, Louis Gabriel Ambroise, viscount de, member of the French chamber of deputies, is one of the first speakers of the ultramontanist party. He emigrated in 1791, and wrote, in Heidelberg, after the dissolution of the corps of the emigrants, in which he had served, his well-known Théorie du Pouvoir, politique et religieux (3 vols. 1796). The character of this, and of his later political writings, is that of metaphysical abstraction, which is by no means popular among the French. After he returned to France, he succeeded in insinuating himself into the favor of Napoleon and of his brothers. The emperor made him a counsellor at the university, with a salary of 10,000 francs. Louis proposed to him to undertake the education of his son, then crownprince of Holland, but B. declined the offer. He was closely connected with Chateaubriand, and assisted in the editing of the Mercure de France. After the restoration of the Bourbons, he was chosen, in 1815, member of the chamber of deputies. He voted, in this chambre introuvable (q. v.), with the majority. In 1816, he was admitted into the French academy. His most important work is the Legislation primitive (3 vols. 1802).

BONAPARTE is the name of an ancient Italian family, which, Louis Bonaparte

says, in his Documens historiques sur le Gouvernement de la Hollande, was settled in Treviso as early as 1272, when a Nardilius Bonaparte gained renown as podestà of Parma and knight of St. Maria or Gaudentius. An author of this name, James Bonaparte, a Tuscan nobleman, who lived about 1527, remarks that his family held important offices in the republic of San Miniato, in the Tuscan territory, and had been distinguished in the wars of Florence. A branch of it existed at Sarzana, in the Genoese dominions, and, during the contests of the Guelphs and Ghibellines, settled at Ajaccio, in Corsica. From this branch sprung the father of Napoleon, Charles Bonaparte, who at first fought with Paoli for the independence of Corsica, and in company with him left the island, but eventually returned, at the invitation of Louis XV. In 1776, Corsica chose him one of the deputies of the nobility who were to be sent to the king of France. Before the French revolution, he wrote his name di Bonaparte. On account of his health, he subsequently retired to Montpellier, where he died in 1785, 40 years old.-His wife, the beautiful Maria Letitia, born at Ajaccio, Aug. 24, 1750, was descended from the house of Ramolini, which was of Italian origin. She bore him the following children, whose names are cited in the order of birth:-Giuseppe, Napolione, Luciano, Luigi, Mariana, Parletta, Annunziada and Girolamo. Left a young widow, destitute of property, she sought and obtained friends among the powerful. Her acquaintance with the count of Marbœuf was the foundation of the fortune of her family. The Corsicans maintained that they were all nobles, and refused, therefore, to pay taxes. Louis XV, in consequence, commanded the governor to select 400 families, who were alone to be considered as noble. In this list Marbœuf inserted the Bonapartes. When the English conquered Corsica, in 1793, madame Letitia, whose mother had married captain Francis Fesch, of Bâle (see Fesch, Joseph, cardinal), fled, with her daughters, to Marseilles. Soon after the 18th Brumaire (9th November), 1799, she went to Paris; but not till after Napoleon's elevation to the imperial dignity, was homage paid to madame Mère, who, in pronunciation and language, was half Italian, half French. She maintained a separate household, and was appointed, by Napoleon, protectrice générale des établissemens de charité. Her benevolence, at this period, was much praised. Some 16

VOL. II.

persons, however, deemed her avaricious. She was not dazzled by the greatness which surrounded her. Of her children, she entertained the greatest affection for Louis, the ex-king of Holland. In 1814, she went to live at Rome, with her half-brother, Cardinal Fesch. Napoleon seems to have always had much affection for her. She resided at Rome in the year 1829.-By the treaty of Paris, of Nov. 20, 1815, the whole family of Bonaparte was banished from France; and, in the edict of amnesty issued by Louis XVIII, Jan. 6, 1816, all Napoleon Bonaparte's relations were excepted. They were to remain in banishment, hold no possessions in France, and dispose of all their property there within six months. The royal ordinance of May 22, 1816, decreed, that the property and income of the members of the Bonaparte family who had come back on Napoleon's return from Elba, which had been confiscated by the law of Jan. 12, 1816, should be appropriated to the support of meritorious soldiers and such donees as had lost their donations in foreign countries. For accounts of Joseph, Napoleon, Lucien, Louis and Jerome Bonaparte, see these heads; for information respecting Mariana, afterwards called Elisa, we refer the reader to the article Bacciochi; respecting Carletta, afterwards called Marie Pauline, to the article Borghese; respecting Annunziada, afterwards called Annonciade Caroline, to the article Murat. See, moreover, Fesch, Eugene (whose sister, Hortensia, is mentioned in the article Louis Bonaparte), and Maria Louisa (Leopoldine Caroline). -The members of the family of Napoleon live retired and much respected, manifesting great taste for the fine arts and the sciences. Almost all have appeared as authors, with more or less success, as will be seen under the different heads.

BONAVENTURA, John of Fidanza; one of the most renowned scholastic philosophers; born, 1221, in Tuscany; became, in 1243, a Franciscan monk; in 1255, teacher oftheology at Paris, where he had studied; in 1256, general of his order, which he ruled with a prudent mixture of gentleness and firmness. He died in 1274, at the age of 53. At this time, he was a cardinal and papal legate at the council of Lyons. His death was hastened by his ascetic severities. On account of his blameless conduct from his earliest youth, and of some miracles ascribed to him, he enjoyed, during his life, the greatest veneration, and was canonized by pope Six

tus IV. The elevation of thought in his writings, and his dignity as general of the Seraphic order, procured him the name doctor Seraphicus. The Franciscans opposed him as their hero to the Dominican scholastic Thomas Aquinas. He wrote for the honor and improvement of his order, for the promotion of the worship of the virgin, on celibacy, transubstantiation and other doctrines. He is frequently obscure by his attempts to support the creed of the church with arguments drawn from the Aristotelian and new Platonic philosophy, and by his mystical views in treating of the moral and intellectual perfection of the human character. Yet he is distinguished from other scholastics by perspicuity, avoidance of useless subtleties, and greater warmth of religious feeling. Among his writings are, Itinerarium Mentis in Deum; Reductio Artium in Theologiam; Centiloquium, and Breviloquium. The whole was published 1588-96, at Rome, 7 vols. folio. But many pieces in that collection are not genuine.

BOND, in law, is a deed whereby the party obliges himself, his executors or administrators (and, if the deed so express it, his heirs also), to pay a certain sum of money to another at a day appointed. If this be all, the bond is called a simple one (simplex obligatio). But there is generally a condition added, that, if the obligor does some particular act, the obligation shall be void, or else shall remain in full force; as payment of rent, performance of covenants in a deed, or repayment of a principal sum of money borrowed of the obligee, with interest; which principal sum is usually one half of the penal sum specified in the bond. In case this condition is not performed, the bond becomes forfeited, or absolute at law, and charges the obligor while living, and, after his death, his personal representatives, and his heirs, if the heirs be named in the bond. In case of a failure to perform the condition of the bond, the obligee can recover only his principal, interest and expenses, if the bond were given to secure the payment of money, or, if it were given to secure the performance of a covenant, he can recover only reasonable damages for the breach.

BONDAGE. (See Villenage.)

BONDI, Clemente, abbate, one of the most esteemed modern poets of Italy, born at Mantua, or, according to some accounts, at Parma, entered the order of the Jesuits a few years before its abolition. After his talents became known to the

archduke Ferdinand, governor of Milan, and his lady, Maria Beatrice of Este, a princess worthy of that name, which has been immortalized by Ariosto and Tasso, he was appointed tutor of their children, and appeared successively as a lyric, descriptive, satirical and elegiac poet; often, also, as a poetical translator. By the elegance, flow and harmony of his versification, and by the nobleness of his style, disfigured neither by extravagance nor by affectation, he became a favorite in Italy. We possess all the poetry of B. in an elegant edition (1808, 3 vols. by Degen, Vienna). The first volume contains the longer poems, La Conversazione; La Felicità; Il Governo Pacifico; La Moda, and La Giornata Villereccia. The second and third contain sonnets, epistles, elegies, canzoni, cantatas, and other small poems. The third concludes with the translation of Virgil's Georgics.

BONDY, Taillepied, count of; born at Paris, 1766, of an ancient family. In 1792, he was made director of the manufactory of assignats. August 10th of this year, he retired from public office unti 1805, when Napoleon made him a chamberlain, and afterwards prefect of the department of the Rhone, where he conducted with mildness, and promoted the public works in his district. In 1812, he was very useful to Lyons by his care to prevent a scarcity of food in the city. În 1814, he maintained the city for a long time against the allies. In 1815, he was appointed, by Napoleon, prefect of the Seine, with a vote in the council of state. Here he spoke, usually, with great frankness to Napoleon, on the necessity of a constitutional system of government. July 3d, 1815, he was one of the three com missioners of the government for conclud ing with the generals of the allies the terms for the surrender of the capital. In 1816 and 18, he was deputy for the department of the Indre, and advocated the principles of the left side.

BONE. The bones are the hardest and most solid parts of animals; they constitute the frame, serve as points of attachment to the muscles, and afford support to the softer solids. They are the instruments, as muscles are the organs, of motion. In the mammalia, birds, fish and reptiles, the whole system of bones united by the vertebral column is called the skeleton.-In the fœtus, they are first a vascular, gelatinous substance, in different points of which earthy matter is gradually deposited. This process is perceptible towards the end of the second month,

and, at the time of maturity, the bone is completely formed. After birth, the bones become gradually more solid, and, in the temperate zones, reach their perfection in men between the ages of 15 and 20. From this age till 50, they change but slightly; after that period, they grow thinner, lighter, and more brittle. Those of the two first classes of animals are harder on their exterior than they are internally. Their material, except in the teeth, is nearly the same throughout. Their structure is vascular, and they are traversed by the blood-vessels and the absorbents. They are hardest at the surface, which is formed by a firm membrane, called the periosteum; the internal parts are cellular, containing a substance called marrow. The use of the marrow is to prevent the too great dryness and brittleness of the bones.-Chemistry decomposes bone into gelatin, fat, cartilage and earthy salts. A fresh bone boiled in water, or exposed to the action of an acid, gives out its gelatin; if boiled in water, on cooling the decoction, a jelly is formed, which makes a good portable soup. A pound of bone yields twice as much as the same quantity of flesh. The earth of bones is obtained by calcination; that is, by exposing them to a red heat, by which they are deprived of the soft substances.-That part of anatomy which treats of the bones is called osteology.

BONER, Ulrich, the most ancient German fabulist, was a Dominican friar at Berne, in the first half of the 14th century. He lived when the age of minstrelsy and chivalrous poetry was in its decline, and has published a collection of fables, under the title Der Edelstein (The Gem), which is distinguished by purity of language and picturesque simplicity of description. The first editions of these fables were by Bodmer and Eschenburg. Benecke in Göttingen has published a very good edition more recently, and added a vocabulary (Berlin, 1816).

BONESET. The herb known by the name of boneset or thoroughwort (eupatorium perfoliatum) is a very useful annual plant, indigenous to the United States. It is easily distinguished, in the autumn, in marshy grounds, by its tall stem, four or five feet in height, passing through the middle of a large, double, hairy leaf, which is perforated by the stalk, and surmounted by a broad, flat head of light-purple flowers. It is much used as a medicine, throughout the country, in the form of an infusion of the heads of the flowers, and part of the remainder of the plant, in

boiling water, which is allowed to stand a few minutes upon the fire. It is one of the best domestic articles for breaking up and throwing off a violent cold, for which purpose, from a half pint to a pint of the above infusion may be drank cold, at bed-time, which will be found to purge by morning; or it may be taken warm before eating, in the morning, when it will generally operate as an emetic and purgative. Smaller quantities of the infusion, taken warm through the day, in bed, and in combination with other medicines, will be found highly serviceable in rheumatism and rheumatic fevers. As a safe and valuable family medicine, it cannot be too highly recommended.

BONIFACE; the name of several popes. B. I, elected, 418, by a party of the clergy, and confirmed by the emperor Honorius, who declared the antipope Eulalius a usurper. B. persecuted the Pelagians, and extended his authority by prudent measures. A decree of the emperor Theodosius deprived him, in 421, of the spiritual sovereignty over Eastern Illyria. He died 422. His history proves the Roman bishop to have been, in his time, dependent on the secular power.-B. II, elected 530. The death of his rival, the antipope Dioscorus, a few days after his election, left him in quiet possession of the papal chair. He acknowledged the supremacy of the secular sovereign, in a council held at Rome.-B. III, chosen 607, died nine months after his election. -B. IV, elected 608. He consecrated the Pantheon (q. v.) to the virgin and all the saints.-B. V, a Neapolitan, was pope from 619 to 625. He confirmed the inviolability of the asylums, and endeavored to diffuse Christianity among the English.

B. VI, a Roman, elected 896, died of the gout a fortnight after.-B. VII, antipope, elected 974, during the lifetime of Benedict VI, whose death he was suspected of having caused. Expelled from Rome, he returned on the death of Benedict VII, and found the chair occupied by John XIV, whom he deposed and threw into prison, where he allowed him to die of hunger. B. died 11 months after his return.-B. VIII, see the article.B. IX, Pietro Tomacelli of Naples, succeeded Urban VI at Rome, during the schism in the church, while Clement VII resided at Avignon. He was distinguished for the beauty of his person, and the elegance of his manners, rather than for a profound knowledge of theology and canon law. Even the counsel of his experienced cardinals could not save him