(Chronicle of the Nineteenth Century), Epistola Parisienses (he went to Paris in 1807, to collect all that has been left to us by the Greek geographers), Untersuchungen über Geschichte, Geographie und Chronologie (Researches on History, Geography and Chronology), and of the very useful Historische Tabellen (Historical Tables), which have been translated into English.

BRÉE, Matthew van, first painter to the crown-prince of the Netherlands, member of the national institute of the Netherlands, born at Antwerp in 1773, cultivated his talents in this city, and afterwards in Paris, under the direction of Vincent, and in Italy. As early as 1798, his Death of Cato was admired. This great painter, being accustomed to sketch his ideas rapidly, was able to present to Napoleon the manoeuvres of the fleet on the Scheldt before Antwerp, a few hours after they took place. With almost equal rapidity, he made a painting of Napoleon's entrance into Amsterdam, at the moment chosen, being that when the magistrates are delivering to him the keys of the city. In architecture and in sculpture, B. also exhibited considerable talents.-Philip James van B. is likewise a celebrated painter, and lives at Pavia. Several of his works have been purchased in France for the Louvre, St. Cloud, &c. He was born in 1786.

BREECHES; an article of clothing in use even among the Babylonians, and which, with them, were made so as to cover the foot, and supply the place of stockings. In Europe, we find hose first used among the Gauls; hence the Romans called a part of Gaul breeched Gaul (Gallia braccata). In the 5th century, they had become fashionable in Rome; but the breeches-makers were expelled from the city by an imperial edict, it being considered unworthy of the lords of the world to wear these barbarous investments. The stockings were separated from them some centuries since. Some times they were worn small, and sometimes large, as the fashion changed. In some instances, an immense quantity of cloth was put in them. The poor stuffed theirs out with such substances as they could procure. Joachim II, elector of Brandenburg, who had forbidden the wearing of these enormous integuments, made a person, whom he saw with a pair, rip them open, when some bushels of bran fell out of them. Osiander (in his Hoffahrtsteufel) and Musculus (in his Hoser teufel) raised their voices against

this preposterous fashion. The modern breeches were first introduced during the reign of Louis XIV.

BREECHING; a rope used to secure the cannon of a ship of war, and prevent them from recoiling too much in the time of battle. It is of sufficient length to allow the muzzle of the cannon to come within the ship's side to be charged.

BREEZES, SEA, LAND and MOUNTAIN. (See Winds.)

BREGUET, A. L., maker of time-pieces for the royal marine in France, member of the academy of sciences and the bureau des longitudes, of the society for the encouragement of national industry, the royal council of arts and manufactures, and the legion of honor, born at Neufchâtel, in 1747, contributed to the perfection of the art of watch-making, as well as of mechanics in general, by a number of useful inventions, for instance, astronomical double watches, double chronometers, marine watches, a sympathetic clock, watches that need not be wound up, provided they are occasionally worn about the person, the metallic thermometer, &c. He likewise improved the telegraph. He has a son, who possesses a large share of his father's talents, and has been concerned with him in the execution of many of his great works.

BREHON; an ancient Irish magistrate. The office appears to have been hereditary. Each tribe had one brehon, whose judgments were given in the open air on the hill-tops; many spots are yet called Brehons' chairs. The office was abolished under Edward III. Some fragments of the brehon law are yet extant. (See Ledwich's Antiquities of Ireland, 1790.)

BREISGAU. (See Brisgau.)

BREISLAK, Scipio, born in Rome, 1768, and destined for the church, for which reason he is mentioned as an abbate in the works of Spallanzani, was one of the most ingenious geologists of our times, and opposed to the Neptunian system, without, however, implicitly adopting the Vulcanian. He was professor of natural philosophy and mathematics at Ragusa. He was afterwards professor in the collegio Nazareno, at Rome, made a scientific tour through Naples, and went to Paris, where he formed an intimacy with Fourcroy, Chaptal, Cuvier, &c. Napoleon appointed him inspector of the saltpetre works and powder-mills in the kingdom of Italy. He was also a member of the institute and many other literary societies. The first work, by which he made himself known to the public as an observer

of nature (e. g. his treatise on the solfatara in the vicinity of Naples, in the neighborhood of which he lived for years as director of the establishments for boiling alum), contains indications of the principles which he afterwards developed in his system. The first extensive work, which he published at Florence in 1798, was the Topografia Fisica della Campagna (Physical Topography of Campania). After some time spent in the examination of this region, he returned to Rome, examined the adjoining country in a geological point of view, and confirmed his former opinion, that the seven hills are chiefly the remains of an extinct volcano. Leav ing his native city on account of political disturbances, he went to France, where he made himself known to the mineralogists, in 1801, by a new edition of the above-mentioned work (disfigured, indeed, by many misprints), with additional remarks, supplements and corrections, under the title Voyages Physiques et Lithologiques dans la Campanie, 2 vols. A topographico-mineralogical description of the environs of Rome is added to it. It contains the results of 12 years' researches. Till then, there had been no systematic treatise on the mineralogy of mount Vesuvius. Earlier writings on this volcano contained merely the history of single eruptions, and the only mineralogical work on this subject, by Gonni, is nothing but a catalogue. B. was the first who examined geologically the regions described in his work. This valuable work has been translated into several languages; into French by general Pommereuil, into German by Fr. Ambr. Reuss (Leipsic, 1802, 2 vols. with engravings).-B. took advantage of his residence in France to examine the regions of Auvergne famous for the Puys (volcanic mountains), and his observations there contributed not a little to the formation of his theories on the effects of volcanoes. In Milan, he wrote his Arte di Salnitrajo (Art of manufacturing Saltpetre), and, in 1811, published his Introduzione alla Geologia (Introduction to Geology), 2 vols., which was, in 1818, followed by an edition in French, almost a new work, under the title Institutions Géologiques, 3 vols., likewise published at Milan. In 1822, his beautiful geological description of the province of Milan appeared. He died at Turin, Feb. 15, 1826, at the age of 78. He left his celebrated cabinet of minerals to the family of Borromeo.

BREITKOPF, John Gottlob Emmanuel; born at Leipsic, in 1719. He pursued, at

first, a literary career. During his studies, the works of Albert Dürer, in which the proportions of letters are mathematically calculated, fell into his hands. He was pleased with this subject, and, during his whole life, labored with zeal to improve the German characters. An attempt was once made to introduce into Germany the Latin characters instead of those commonly used in that country. B. was one of the most zealous opposers of the plan. In 1755, he essentially improved the art of printing music with movable characters. His invention of a method of printing maps, pictures, and even Chinese characters, by means of movable types, is ingenious, though less useful than the other. Although the pope, as well as the academy in Paris, testified their great approbation of this invention, yet no practical use has yet been made of it. He was engaged in writing a history of the art of printing, but died in 1794, before this work was finished. B. was a man of great probity.

BREMEN, on the Weser, situated in a territory formerly an archbishopric, but erected into the duchy of Bremen in 1648, was one of the leading members of the Hanseatic league. At the reformation, the city embraced the Lutheran religion, and expelled the archbishop. Since 1562, Calvinism has been the prevailing religion. By the peace of Westphalia, the crown of Sweden came into possession of the secularized archbishopric, under the title of a duchy. When the elector of Brunswick gained possession of the duchy in 1731, the prerogatives of a free city were confirmed to B. B. is divided by the Weser into the old and the new towns. The fortifications have been demolished, and on the ground where they stood a garden, in the English style, was laid out in 1802, extending, in a semicircle, round the old town, from one bank of the Weser to the other: the garden is provided with running water, and wide, clean walks. Outside of each of its gates is a retired place, planted with fir-trees, affording sheltered walks, and room for sports of various sorts. There is, also, much taste displayed in the arrangement of the trees, shrubs and plants. Adjoining it are the finest houses, which have a good view of the river, the city, and the surrounding country. The principal buildings, besides the churches, are the senatehouse, with its cellar of Rhenish wine, the former archiepiscopal palace, converted, in 1819, into the city hall; the exchange, a museum, theatre, hospital,

city library, and two orphan asylums. The water-works furnish the old town with pure, soft water. The number of inhabitants is estimated at 38,000; that of the houses is 5350. The city contains a gymnasium (academy), and, for scientific instruction, a pædagogium. The magistrates (two of whom may be Lutherans), are 4 burgomasters and 24 senators, composed partly of the learned and partly of the mercantile professions. If matters of general moment arise, the Wittheit (wisdom), consisting of all the citizens who pay taxes, is convoked. The territory belonging to the city is about 74 square miles, and contains 48,500 inhabitants. From 1810 to 1813, B. was the capital of the French department of the Mouths of the Weser. The congress of Vienna admitted it into the German confederacy, as a free city, with one vote in the general assembly. B. and the three other free cities have, together, a vote in the diet. The revenues amount to 400,000 florins; the debt, to 4,500,000 florins. The constitution is, like that of Hamburg and Lubeck, a relic of other times. A thousand antiquated forms render the government of this small city a complicated web of jarring interests. These free cities do not even possess the liberty of the press, and their existence depends on the mutual jealousy of the powers which surround them, with whose whims they must always comply. The only advantage of which they can boast is the comparative lightness of the taxes. The chief points deserving of remark in the political constitution of these cities are, that they have four burgomasters chosen for life, a senate, chosen from among the citizens, also for life; likewise meetings of the citizens, either in primary assemblies or by delegates, whose opinion and consent are seldom asked, except when new taxes are to be imposed; and, finally, a number of subjects not represented. In 1820, the toll at Elsfleth was abolished; but the accumulation of sand between Vegesack and B. has not ceased, and vessels deeply laden can go up the river only to Bracke and Elsfleth, or, at most, to Vegesack. Their cargoes are, therefore, discharged into lighters, which is inconvenient and expensive. The herring and whale fisheries carried on from this city are important, and the trade, principally in German linen, to St. Thomas and South America, is increasing. Olbers and Heeren were born at B. B. lies in lon. 8° 48′ 3′′ E.; lat. 53° 4' 45" N.

BRENNER, in the Tyrol. Mount B.,

properly so called (also mons Brennius), rising between Inspruck and Sterzing, and between the rivers Inn, Aicha and Adige, 729 fathoms above the level of the sea, is 6063 feet in height. The road from Germany to Italy traverses this mountain. It is 4376 feet high, and about 12 miles long. At its foot is the pass, called Lueg or Lug, where the milestones of Maximin and Maxentius are standing; the first of which was erected in 236, or the year of the victory over the Allemanni, and indicates the distance of 130 Roman miles to Augsburg. The B. has been the chief position for the defence of the Tyrol. In the last revolution of the Tyrolese, in 1809, particularly in August, they defended themselves gallantly in this place against the Bavarians and French, who were advancing, cutting off their communication with Italy, until November. (See Alps, Roads over.)

BRENNUS; the name of several princes of the ancient Gauls, and expressive of their dignity. Its derivation from the old Celtic word brenn (chief, leader) is not improbable. A leader of the Sennones, a Gallic nation in the upper part of Italy, who is mentioned under this name, made an invasion into the Roman territory about the year 390 B. C. Aruns, an Etrurian, having failed in an attempt to obtain justice at Rome in a lawsuit with his ward, addressed himself to the Sennones for the purpose of revenging himself. Enticed by the description of the fertility of Etruria, they conquered the whole country from Ravenna as far as Picenum. They then laid siege to Clusium, the inhabitants of which city had recourse to Rome for assistance. The Romans, in consequence, sent three brothers of the Fabian family to remonstrate with B. B. replied, that his right lay in his sword. The Fabii, provoked by this haughty answer, entered the city under pretence of negotiating, exhorted the inhabitants to perseverance, promised them assistance, and even conducted a sally at their head. B. resolved to avenge this breach of faith, and, raising the siege of Clusium, directed his march towards Rome, after having in vain demanded the surrender of the Fabii. They were appointed military tribunes, and, at the head of 40,000 men, went forth to meet the enemy. A battle was fought near the river Allia, not far from Rome; the Romans were totally defeated, and B. took possession of the city, which had been previously abandoned by the inhabitants. The capitol only was provided with a

garrison; but several aged citizens of rank, priests, ex-consuls and generals, amounting in the whole to about forty, had resolved to remain in the city, and devote themselves to the infernal deities. Attired in their sacerdotal, consular and triumphal robes, like victims decorated for the sacrifice, they seated themselves in their chairs of office, in the middle of the forum, awaiting death. When B. arrived at the forum, he was struck with astonishment at their venerable aspect. The Gauls looked upon them as so many statues of deities, and feared to go near them. At last one ventured to approach M. Papirius, and stroke his beard, upon which the latter struck him with his ivory sceptre, and was immediately massacred, together with his companions, by the infuriated Gauls. Rome was sacked, and all the inhabitants who yet remained in their houses were slain. B. then assaulted the capitol, and, being repelled with considerable loss, he set fire to the city, and levelled it with the ground. The capitol, however, was so strong, that he resolved to reduce it by famine. Detached parties, at the same time, plundered the plain country, and exacted contributions from the neighboring cities. Such a party appeared before Ardea, the place where the valiant Camillus lived in exile. This magnanimous patriot persuaded the senate of Ardea to defend their city, made a nocturnal attack on the besiegers, and caused a dreadful slaughter among them. By this victory, the courage of the Romans, who had fled from their city, was revived: they rallied a body of 40,000 men, chose Camillus their leader, and the senate, being secretly apprized of it, named him dictator. Meanwhile, the garrison of the capitol was in great distress. B. attempted a surprise by night, in which he would have succeeded, had not the cackling of the geese, sacred to Juno, awakened the Romans. Manlius, the former consul, alarmed the garrison, and the Gauls were repulsed. As it was not known in the capitol that Camillus was approaching, or that the Gauls were distressed for want of provisions (Camillus having cut off their supplies), the garrison was inclined to enter into a treaty. B. promised to raise the siege, and leave the Roman territory, for 1000 pounds of gold. The gold was weighed, but the Gauls made use of false weights; and, when the Romans complained of the fraud, B. threw his sword into the scale, and cried out,"Wo to the vanquished!" The Romans were about to submit to this injustice,

when Camillus appeared with his army, and declared the treaty void. A battle ensued: after having sustained an inconsiderable loss, the Gauls retreated, and, in the succeeding night, abandoned their camp. On the following day, Camillus pursued and defeated them. Those who escaped death in battle were slain by the inhabitants of the country, so that not one of them returned to his native land.-Another B., likewise a leader of the Gauls, invaded Macedonia, about 100 years later, with an immense army (150,000 foot and 30-40,000 horse), and, after having defeated Sosthenes, directed his march through Thessaly and Greece, towards Delphi, where he plundered, or was on the point of plundering, both city and temple; but, as several writers assert, he was repelled by a terrible storm, accompanied by lightning and earthquakes: a Greek army drew near, and a general defeat of the Gauls ensued. B. himself put an end to his life.

BRENTANO, Clement, born at Frankfort on the Maine, in 1777, has made himself known by several literary works. Among them is Des Knaben Wunderhorn (The Boy's wondrous Horn, 3 vols., 1826), a collection of German popular songs, which he published with his friend Achim von Arnim.

BRENTFORD; a town in Middlesex, Eng., seven miles W. of London. It has a weekly market and two annual fairs. Here Edmund Ironside defeated the Danes, under Canute, in 1016; and Charles I a part of the parliamentary forces, in 1642. The magnificent edifice of the duke of Somerset, where lady Jane Grey resided, now belonging to the duke of Northumberland, was built here, on the site of a suppressed nunnery.

BRESCIA; capital of a delegation comprising 314,000 inhabitants, and 1200 sq. miles, in the Milanese, at the foot of a mountain rising between the lakes Guarda and Iseo, on the rivers Mella and Garza. This latter river divides the city into two parts, in which respect it resembles most of the cities of Lombardy. It is a manufacturing place, containing 3438 houses and 31,000 inhabitants. It is commanded by a citadel, elevated on a rocky height, and is adorned with a magnificent cathedral. This, as well as the splendid library in the episcopal palace, it owes to cardinal Quirini. It has also a philharmonic society a cabinet of medals, and a theatre. This last is to be found in almost all Italian cities of equal importance, because, in Italy, many possessors of landed estates, hav

ing no other pursuit than pleasure, spend their income in the cities. In this city (for many centuries called Armata) and in Bergamo were the chief manufactories of arms of every description, to answer the demand of the Levant, where much luxury is displayed in this article. Venice, for a long time, sent thither supplies of beautiful and costly arms. The guns of B., and the steel prepared there, are celebrated in the East. B. has also manufactures of oil, fustian, linen, silk, paper and hardware. Much silk, wine, flax and cloth is conveyed into the interior; for the artificial irrigation, by the aid of Alpine streams and the abundance of lakes, together with the southern exposure of the territory of B., impart to the fertile soil of this delegation a great richness of vegetation, which is increased by the industry of the tenants, assisted by the advances of funds on the part of the wealthy proprietors. Under the government of Venice, the taxes were very light; nevertheless, the inhabitants of B. and its territory were very unruly subjects of the republic, whose police was so lax, as scarcely to punish those who undertook to revenge themselves. An end has been put to the disorders, caused by banditti in the territory of Venice, by the French and Austrian government in Italy. In 1826, a number of remarkable antiquities were found buried in a vault near B.

BRESLAU, capital of Silesia, on the river Ohlau, at its junction with the Oder, has 78,860 inhabitants, among whom are 4600 Jews. B. is the residence of both the military and civil governors of Silesia, and the seat of a superior council of administration, a superior court of justice, &c. It contains more than 20 Catholic churches, of which the cathedral of St. John on the Dominsel (island of the cathedral) is the seat of the bishop of B. Among 84 literary institutions, there are four distinguished gymnasia; two Lutheran, one Reformed and one Catholic. Among the libraries worthy of notice are the royal library, the library of the university, and the library of Rhediger, which belongs to the city, and is remarkable for its rich collection of manuscripts. The city possesses, in its senate-house, and in the church of the cross, standing on Sandinsel (Sandy island) two magnificent monuments of ancient German architecture, and, in public places as well as private collections, contains many exquisite works of

art.

It has also a theatre. B. carries on a considerable commerce, which has, however, been diminished by late events.

The two annual fairs of wool are numer ously attended. Among the misfortunes that have befallen the city in modern times, the siege in 1806 and 1807, by the French and the troops of the confederation of the Rhine, must be noticed. After the capture, the French began to destroy the fortifications, which have since been entirely demolished. The spacious walks and new buildings, which occupy the place of the works, have very much contributed to embellish B. The Catholic university was established under Leopold II, in 1702, by the Jesuits, and, in 1811, combined with the Protestant university of Frankfort on the Oder. In 1826, it contained more than 850 students. The Prussian government has done much for this institution, as well as for the other new universities in Berlin and Bonn.

BREST (anciently, Brivates Portus, and Gesobrivate); a seaport in France, and principal place of a district in the department of Finisterre, in the former province of Brittany, 23 posts N. W. Vannes, 693 W. Paris; lon. 4° 29′ W.; lat. 48° 23′ N.; pop., 25,865; houses, 2600. It has one of the best harbors in France, and a safe road, capable of containing 500 men-ofwar, in 8, 10 and 15 fathoms at low water, and it is the chief station of the French marine. The harbor and magazines were constructed in 1631, by Richelieu. The coast, on both sides, is well fortified. The entrance is narrow and difficult, with covered rocks, that make it dangerous to those not well acquainted with it. It contains two parishes and a marine seminary. The arsenal is an immense and superb building, and the dock-yards are well constructed. It is the seat of a governor, of an admiralty board, and a municipality. The climate of B. is wet and uncomfortable, and the sky is almost always obscured. June 1, 1794, the French fleet was beaten off Brest by the English, under Howe, who took from them six ships of the line, and sunk a seventh.

BRETAGNE. (See Brittany.)

BRETEUIL, Louis Auguste le Tonnelier, baron de; born in 1733; a French diplomatist; at first, minister plenipotentiary at the court of the elector of Cologne, afterwards at the Russian court, then successively ambassador in Sweden, Holland, Naples, at Vienna, and the congress at Teschen. His embassy to Vienna explains his attachment to the queen Marie Antoinette. As minister and secretary of state, he was a zealous defender of the monarchy: he was, therefore, considered as one of the greatest enemies of the rev