rodox opinions, he received an invitation to become pastor in a Lutheran church at Petersburg. In 1766, he was made director of the united gymnasiums of Berlin and of the suburb Köln, and discharged his duties with great diligence. He died in 1793. He is chiefly distinguished as a geographer. Before his great work, Allgemeine Erdbeschreibung, which he began to publish in 1754, in separate volumes, and which, though not entirely completed by the author, passed through eight legal editions during his life, neither the Germans nor any other nation had a thoroughly scientific geographical work.

BUSEMBAUM, Hermann, a Jesuit, famous for his Medulla Theologia moralis, ex variis probatisque Auctoribus concinnata, born at Nottelen, in Westphalia, 1600, rector of the Jesuits' colleges at Hildesheim and Münster, died in 1668. His work was much used in the seminaries of the Jesuits, and had passed through 50 editions, when father Lacroix published it, increased from a single duodecimo to two folios by his own commentaries and the additions of father Collendall. It was published at Lyons, in 1729, with further additions by father Montausan. The latter edition was reprinted, in 1758, at Cologne. It was now found to contain principles concerning homicide and regicide, which appeared the more reprehensible on account of the recent attempt on the life of Louis XV, by Damiens. The parliament of Toulouse caused the work to be publicly burnt, and summoned the superiors of the Jesuits to appear at their bar for trial. They disavowed the doctrines of the book, declared themselves ignorant of the author, and denied that any Jesuit had any share in it. The parliament of Paris was satisfied with condemning the book. Against both these sentences, father Zacharia, an Italian Jesuit, with the permission of his superiors, stepped forward as the defender of B. and Lacroix; but his defence was condemned by the parliament of Paris. B. was also the author of Lilium inter Spinas, de Virginibus Deo devotis eique in Sæculo inservientibus.

BUSHEL; an English dry measure, containing 8 gallons or 4 pecks. It is also used in the North American U. States. The standard English bushel (12 Henry VII) contains 8 gallons of wheat, each of 8 pounds troy, each of 12 ounces, each of 20 pennyweights, each of 32 corns of wheat that grew in the middle of the ear. In 1696, a duty being laid upon malt, it

became necessary to ascertain the exact contents of the Winchester bushel, as that of Henry VII was called. It was found that the capacity was 2151.7 cubic inches of pure water, equivalent to 1131 oz., 13 dwts. troy. (See J. Q. Adams's Report upon Weights and Measures, Washington, 1821.) The capacity of the Imperial bushel, prescribed by the act of uniformity (5 Geo. IV, c. 74), which took effect Jan. 1, 1826, is, for coal, potatoes, fruits, and other goods sold by heaped measure, 2815 cubic inches, the goods to be heaped up in the form of a cone, to a height above the rim of the measure of at least three fourths of its depth. The imperial bushel for all liquids, and for corn and other dry goods not heaped, contains 2218.20 cubic inches, and holds 80 lbs. avoirdupois of pure water.

BUSHIRE, OF ABUSHEHR; the principal seaport of Persia, situated on the Persian gulf, with 5000 inhabitants. The principal exports are carpets, wine of Shiraz, rose-water, drugs, pearls and cotton. The English East India company have a factory here. Lon. 50° 43′ E.; lat. 28° 59′ N.

BUSHMEN, or BOSHMEN; the common name of that wild race of people, who dwell in the western part of South Africa, in the immense plains bordering on the north side of the colony of the cape of Good Hope, and are lost in the unknown regions of the interior. Janssens, formerly Dutch governor at the cape, gives the following account of them:-The Bushmen are a wild, rude, cruel and miserable people. So far from forming a nation, they do not even form societies. They live together in single families, and unite in great numbers only for defence or for pillage. They do not cultivate the land, and have no domestic animals except the dog. Their usual food is locusts. They endure hunger for a long time, but indemnify themselves by their voracity if they are so fortunate as to kill any wild game, or steal an ox or a sheep. They are entirely destitute of huts and household furniture. The scorching heaven is their tent, and the hot sand their bed. Their weapons consist of a small bow and poisoned arrows, which they shoot, with astonishing accuracy, to a great distance. Their language is exceedingly poor. It consists of a certain rattling with the tongue, and harsh, gurgling tones, for which we have no letters. They are, for the most part, of low stature; their skin is of a dark-yellow; and their hair, which resembles wool, is twist

ed together in small tufts. (See Hottentots.)

BUSHWANAS, or BOSHUANAS, or BETJOUANAS; an African people, occupying the country lying between 20° and 25° S. latitude, divided into several tribes. Though under the government of separate chiefs, who are often at war with each other, these tribes are united by language, manners and customs. Less tall than the Caffres, and as well proportioned, their form is even more elegant. Their skin is of a brown tint, between the shining black of the Negro and the yellow color of the Hottentots. They surpass the Caffres in civilization and the arts of life. Some of their towns are considerable. Kurechanee was visited by Campbell in 1821, who estimated the population at 16,000. Inoculation for the smallpox is practised there. Old and New Leetakoo contain each 4000 inhabitants. The Bushwanas are inquisitive and intelligent; without any settled occupation, yet always active. Their principal food is the curds of milk and the produce of the chase they rarely kill cattle, and have an invincible aversion to fish. The ashes in which their meat is cooked serve them for salt. Their clothes are made of the skins of animals: the women cover the breast, and leave the belly exposed. Their ornaments are rings and bracelets of ivory and brass. Their houses are light, clean, airy, and generally of a circular form. They are very skilful in tempering iron, and making their arms, which consist of a hassagay (javelin), a shield and a club. Polygamy is established among them; a young man buys a wife for 10 or 12 oxen: her first business is to build a house, for which she fells the necessary quantity of wood. The erection of the stable, the cultivation of the fields, and all the household work, falls to her. As soon as he can afford it, the Bushwana buys a second wife, who, in like manner, must build a house and stable, and cultivate a piece of ground. Honesty, loyalty and courage are the highest virtues, in their estimation. They have an idea of a soul, and believe in an invisible Lord of nature, the sovereign Dispenser of good and evil, whom they call Mourimo. Their principal ceremonies are circumcision and the blessing of cattle. They divide the year into 13 lunar months, and distinguish the planets from the fixed stars. Christianity has been introduced among them by missionaries, and with it some degree of civilization.

BUSKIN (in Greek and Latin, cothurnus); a kind of high shoe worn upon the stage, by the ancient actors of tragedy, in order to give them a more heroic appearance. It was introduced by Sophocles, and, from this use, the word is figuratively employed, by the classic authors, for tragedy itself (Juvenal, xv. 29), or for a lofty and elevated style (grande munus Cecropio cothurno, Hor. Od. ii. 1, 12). The buskin was also worn, by both sexes, particularly by the ladies, for ornament (Juv. vi. 505). The Melpomene in the Villa Borghese has the buskin. Hunters and soldiers used a different kind, resembling the half-boot.

BUST (Italian, il busto, from the Latin bustum), in sculpture; the representation of that portion of the human figure, which comprises the head and the upper part of the body. Busts are of different extent: 1. such as consist of the head, the upper part of the neck, and the upper part of the shoulders; 2. heads with the upper part of the chest, to the end of the breastbone (busts properly so called); and, 3. heads with the whole chest to the middle of the body, often to the hips. Between the bust and its pedestal is sometimes a column, or a square prop; such a bust is called Herme. The figure is sometimes in relief. The origin of the bust may be derived from the Herme, and from the custom of the Greeks and Romans to decorate their shields with portraits, and their vestibules with the images of their ancestors. Busts were afterwards used for the images of their gods, as being less expensive. The greater part have been found in Rome and Italy. Some remarkable ones have been obtained from Herculaneum, in bronze. The chief difficulty in the execution of busts arises from this circumstance, that we are accustomed to estimate the size of the head by comparing it with the whole body. In a bust, therefore, the head appears disproportionately large, and the artist is obliged to yield, in some measure, to this ocular deception, by lessening its natural proportion.

BUSTARD; the trivial name of a species of wader belonging to the genus otis, L., and to the family pressirostres, C. The great bustard (otis tarda, L.) is the largest of European land-birds, the male weighing, on an average, 25 pounds. It is four feet in length, and measures nine feet from tip to tip of the wings. The head and neck are ash-colored, and there is a tuft of feathers about five inches long_on each side of the lower mandible. The

back is transversely barred with black and bright ferruginous colors, and the primaries are black. The tail consists of 20 feathers, broadly barred with red and black. The belly is white, the legs dusky, naked, and without a hind toe. The female is but half the size of the male, and has the crown of the head of a deep orange color, traversed by red lines; the remainder of the head is brown. She otherwise resembles the male, except that the color of her plumage is less bright. This species is found in most of the open and level countries of the south and east of England, where they are occasionally seen, in autumn, in flocks of 50 and upwards. They are very shy and vigilant, and by no means easy to shoot. They run with great speed, and aid their course with their wings, like the bstrich. Although they rise on the wing with difficulty, they are said to fly many miles without resting. They feed on grain, seeds, worms, &c., and lay two eggs, as large as those of a goose: these are of a pale olive tint, with dark spots. The nest is merely a hole scraped in the earth. They do not wander far from their accustomed haunts, seldom going to a greater distance than 20 or 30 miles. Their flesh is considered fine eating.

BUTCHERS have been much the same in all ages and countries, and we know not of any great improvements that modern art or science has introduced into the practice of slaughtering animals. The ancient Scythians, and their Tartar descendants, seem to be peculiar in their taste for horse-flesh. The Romans appear to have loved beef, and veal, and mutton, as well as the modern Europeans and their American descendants: cara omnia, is the complaint of the old comic writer, agninam caram, caram bubulam, vitulinam, porcinam, omnia cara. In Paris, the butcheries, formerly receptacles of filth, and injurious to health, were removed by Napoleon, in 1809, to the outskirts of the city. They are called abattoirs (abattre, to fell), and consist of spacious buildings for the reception of the cattle, preparing the tripe, tallow, &c, and reservoirs of water for the service of the establishments. Of these there are five, in which are slaughtered annually 75,000 black cattle, with a proportionate number of sheep, &c. The larger animals are felled by a blow on the head, and the jugular vein is immediately separated with a knife. The flesh is then blown (gonflé), by injecting air into the vessels through a bellows, which gives it a plump appear

ance. Every part of the animal-bones, horns, hoofs, blood, intestines, hide, tallow-is used for the fabrication of glue, jelly, Prussian blue, sal-ammoniac, &c. In London, the carcass butchers kill the meat, and sell it out in great quantities; the retail butchers sell it out to the consumers. The average number of oxen sold at Smithfield annually is 156,000; sheep and lambs, 1,500,000; calves, 22,000; hogs, 20,000. The Jews in London have their own butchers, who are licensed by the rabbis. They cut the throats of the animals, never knocking them down, according to the usual practice. In some countries, the method of slaughtering cattle by penetrating the spinal marrow is practised.

BUTE; a small island of Scotland, lying at the mouth of the Clyde, with an area of 29,000 acres, belonging principally to the marquis of Bute. The climate is moist and mild. The herring fishery is a profitable employment. The only town is Rothesay, the ruins of the castle of which, formerly inhabited by the Scottish monarchs, still remain. It gave the title of duke of Rothesay to the heir apparent of Scotland. The title is now transferred to the prince of Wales.

BUTE (John Stuart) earl of; a British statesman, born in the beginning of the 18th century, in Scotland. His ancestors had been elevated to the peerage in 1703, and were connected with the old kings of Scotland. In his youth, B. seemed devoted to pleasure, and little inclined to engage in politics; nevertheless, in 1737, after the death of a Scottish peer, he was chosen to fill his seat in parliament. In consequence of his opposition to the measures of the ministry, he was left out when a new parliament was convened, in 1741. Offended by this neglect, B. retired to his estates, and lived there, wholly secluded, till the landing of the Pretender in Scotland, 1745, induced him to go to London, and offer his services to the government. Notwithstanding this manifestation of zeal, he would not have been brought forward again, if he had not attracted the notice of the prince of Wales, at an exhibition of private theatricals, in consequence of which he was invited to the court. Here he soon gained influence, and succeeded in making himself indispensable to the prince. At his death, in 1751, he was appointed, by the widowed princess, chamberlain to her son, and was intrusted by her with his education. B. never lost sight of his pupil, and possessed so much more influence with the princess

ceeded his grandfather, in 1632, and, although all his connexions were Catholics, his wardship being claimed by James I, he was brought up a member of the church of England, to which he ever after constantly adhered. When Strafford became lord-lieutenant of Ireland, B. was made commander of the army, which consisting of only 3000 men, he could do little more than keep the enemy in check, and was obliged to agree to a cessation of hostilities; after which, having been created a marquis, he was appointed lordlieutenant. On the ruin of the royal cause, he retired to France. After the execution of Charles, he returned to Ireland, with a view of raising the people; but, on the landing of Cromwell, he again returned to France. While abroad, he exerted himself to further the restoration of Charles; and, when that event was brought about by Monk, returned with the king. Before the coronation, he was created duke, and assisted at that ceremony as lord high steward of England. In 1662, he was again appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland, which country he restored to comparative tranquillity, and was an active benefactor to it, by encouraging various improvements, particularly the growth of flax and manufacture of linen. On the exile of lord Clarendon, his attachment to that nobleman involved B. in much of the odium attached to him, and although, on his recall from Ireland, nothing, on the most rigorous inquiry, could be proved against him, he was removed by the machinations of Buckingham. In 1670, a desperate design was formed by the noted colonel Blood, whom he had imprisoned in Ireland, to seize his person, and hang him at Tyburn. The project succeeded so far, that he was one night forcibly taken out of his coach in St. James's street, placed behind a horseman, and carried some distance; but at length he threw the man and himself from the horse by his personal exertions, and obtained assistance before he could be replaced. The king sent lord Arlington to request the duke to forgive the insult; who calmly replied, that, "If his majesty could pardon Blood for his attempt to steal the crown, he might easily pardon that upon his life;" adding, that "he would obey the king, without inquiring his reason." For six years, he was deprived of court favor, but at length was again appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland, which place he held during the remainder of the reign of Charles; but soon after resigned, his principles not

suiting the policy of James. He died at his seat in Dorsetshire, in 1688, leaving behind him the character of a man who united the courtier and the man of honor and integrity better than any nobleman of the time.

He

BUTLER, Joseph; an English prelate of distinguished eminence as a writer on ethics and theology. He was born in 1692, at Wantage, in Berkshire, where his father was a shopkeeper, and a Presbyterian dissenter. After some previous education at a grammar-school, he was sent to an academy at Tewkesbury, with a view to ordination as a minister among the dissenters. While occupied by his studies, he gave a proof of his talents by some acute and ingenious remarks on doctor Samuel Clarke's Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God, in private letters addressed to the author. likewise paid particular attention to the points of controversy between the members of the established church and the dissenters, the result of which was a determination to be no longer a nonconformist; and he therefore removed to Oxford, in 1714. Having taken orders, he was, in 1718, appointed preacher at the Rolls chapel, and, in 1736, he was appointed clerk of the closet to the queen. The same year, he published his celebrated work, the Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution and Course of Nature. In 1738, doctor B. was promoted to the bishopric of Bristol, on the recommendation of queen Caroline; and, in 1750, obtained his highest preferment-the bishopric of Durham. He died in 1752, and was interred in Bristol cathedral. A charge, delivered to the clergy of the diocese of Durham, on the subject of external religion, together with the circumstance of his setting up a marble cross in his chapel at Bristol, gave rise to suspicions that he was inclined to the principles of popery; and, after his death, a report was spread that he had died in the Catholic faith; but this story was satisfactorily contradicted by archbishop Secker.

BUTLER, Samuel, a celebrated English poet, was the son of a farmer in Strensham, in Worcestershire, where he was born in 1612, and educated at Cambridge. He resided some time with sir Samuel Luke, a commander under Cromwell. In this situation, B. acquired the materials for his Hudibras, by a study of those around him, and particularly of sir Samuel himself, a caricature of whom constituted the celebrated knight Hudibras.