writings against Catholicism. But his genius, and the depth of his exegetic and historical knowledge, exposed him to the persecutions of the zealots of his time. His assertion, that the points of difference between Calvinists and Lutherans were of less importance than the doctrines in which they agreed, and that the doctrine of the Trinity was less distinctly expressed in the Old Testament than in the New, and his recommendation of good works, drew upon him the reproaches of cryptopapism. His heresy was termed Syncretism. (q. v.) The elector John George I of Saxony protected him, in 1655, at the diet of Ratisbon, against the Lutheran theologians. His historical investigations and his philosophical spirit shed new light on dogmatic theology and the exegesis of the Bible, and gave them a more scientific form. He made Christian morality a distinct branch of science, and, by reviving the study of the Christian fathers and of the history of the church, prepared the way for Spener, Thomasius and Semler. He educated his son Frederic Ulrich Calixtus, and many other enlightened theologians.

ČALK; to drive a quantity of oakum into the seams of planks, to prevent the entrance of the water. After the oakum is driven in, it is covered with melted pitch or resin, to preserve it from the action of the water.

CALKAR. (See Calcar.)

CALKOEN, Jan Frederic van Beek, a Dutch scholar and astronomer, born 1772, at Gröningen, died in 1811. He was a member of many learned societies, professor at Leyden, and afterwards at Utrecht. His Euryalus, on Beauty, and another work on the Time-Pieces of the Ancients, are deserving of mention. His essay against the work of Dupuis, Origine de tous les Cultes, obtained the Taylerian prize.

CALL is the cry of a bird to its young, or to its mate in coupling time, which, in most instances, is a repetition of one note, and is generally common to the cock and hen. Calls are also a sort of pipes used by fowlers to catch birds, by imitating their notes. They are commonly formed of a pipe, reed or quill, and blown by bellows attached to it, or by the mouth. Hares are also sometimes taken by a call.

CALLAO; a seaport town of Peru, on a river of the same name, near the Pacific ocean. It is the port of the city of Lima, from which it is six miles distant. Lon. 77° 4′ W.; lat. 12° 3′ S.; population, about 5000. The road is one of the most beau

sea.

tiful, the largest and safest, in the South Two islands, named St. Laurence and Callao, and the peninsula, which nearly reaches them, defend vessels from south winds: towards the west and north is open sea, but the winds from these points are never violent; the water is always tranquil; is deep, and without rocks. C. is the rendezvous of from 16 to 17,000 tons of shipping, 5000 of which are reserved for the navigation of the Pacific ocean. The town was fortified by 10 bastions and some batteries, and defended by a garrison. There are two fauxbourgs inhabited by Indians. In 1746, this town was destroyed by an earthquake, when, of 4000 inhabitants, only 200 escaped. Since that time, C. has been rebuilt upon the same plan, but a little farther from the

sea.

CALLIMACHUS, a Greek poet and grammarian, born at Cyrene, in Lybia, of a noble family, flourished under the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, about 250 years before Christ. He opened, in Alexandria. a school of grammar, i. e., of the belleslettres and liberal sciences, and could boast of several scholars of distinguished attainments, such as Eratosthenes, Apollonius Rhodius, Aristophanes of Byzantium, &c. Ptolemy Philadelphus presented him with a place in the museum, and gave him a salary, as he did other men of learning. After the death of Philadelphus, he stood in equal favor with Ptolemy Euergetes. Under these circumstances, he wrote most of his works, the number of which was very considerable. With the exception of some fragments, all that we have of these is 72 epigrams and 6 hymns. His poem on the hair of Berenice (coma Berenices) has been preserved in the Latin translation of Catullus. C.'s poems bear the stamp of their age, which sought to supply the want of natural genius by a great ostentation of learning. Instead of noble, simple grandeur, they exhibit an overcharged style, a false pathos, and a straining after the singular, the antiquated, the learned. His elegies are mentioned by the ancients with great praise, and served Propertius as models. The best edition of C. is by J. A. Ernesti (Leyden, 1761, 2 vols.), which, as well as the edition of Grævius (Utrecht, 1697, 2 vols.), contains Spanheim's learned commentary. Valckenaer also published Elegiarum Fragmenta, by this author (Leyden, 1799).

CALLIOPE; one of the muses (q. v.); daughter of Jupiter and Mnemosyne. She presided over eloquence and heroic

poetry. She is said to have been the mother of Orpheus by Apollo. She was represented with an epic poem in one hand, and a trumpet in the other, and generally crowned with laurel.

CALLISEN, Henry, a physician and surgeon, born in 1740, at Pentz, in Holstein, son of a poor clergyman, educated himself by his own exertions, served in the army and in the fleet, afterwards in the hospitals at Copenhagen, was made, in 1771, chief surgeon in the Danish fleet, and, in 1773, professor of surgery at the university in Copenhagen. He wrote, in 1777, his Institut. Chirurgia hodierna, which was received with applause by all Europe. In Vienna, and at the Russian universities, lectures are given on them. There are also excellent essays by him in the medical journals. He died at Copenhagen, February 5, 1824, at the age of 84

years.

CALLISTHENES, a Greek philosopher and historian, a native of Olynthus, was appointed to attend Alexander in his expedition against Persia. His republican sentiments rendered him unfit for a courtier, added to which he had no small share of vanity. But his unpardonable crime was his opposition to the assumption by that conqueror of divine honors. The conspiracy of Hermolaus affording a pretext for a charge of treason, he was apprehended. Historians disagree as to his fate; but most of them admit that he was for some time carried about with the army in the ignominious character of a convicted traitor. Aristotle states that he died of a disease contracted under this treatment. Ptolemy asserts that he was crucified; Justin, that he was disfigured and confined in a cage, with a dog for his companion, until Lysimachus enabled him to terminate his sufferings by poison. He wrote a History of the Actions of Alexander, and other historical works.

CALLISTHENICS. (See Gymnastics.) CALLISTO; a nymph of Diana, daughter of Lycaon, king of Arcadia. Jupiter loved her, assumed the shape of Diana, and seduced her. The fruit of her amour, called Arcas, was hid in the woods, but preserved. She was changed, by the jealousy of Juno, into a bear. Jupiter placed her, with her son, among the stars, where she still shines as the Great Bear.

CALLOT, Jacques, born in 1594, at Nancy, vanquished, by perseverance, every obstacle which obstructed his perfection in his art. He twice ran away from his parents, who intended him for another

profession, fled to Italy, and learnt drawing, in Rome, under Giul. Parigi, engraving under Philip Thomassin, and became afterwards, at Florence, a disciple of Canta-Gallina, and, at Nancy, of Claude Henriet. He soon gave himself up entirely to his love for engraving, and preferred etching, probably, because his active and fertile genius could, in that way, express itself more rapidly. In the space of 20 years, he designed and executed about 1600 pieces. (See the catalogue in the Cabinet de Singularités d'Architecture, Peinture, Sculpture et Gravure, by Le Comte, vol. 2, p. 376 to 392, and Gersaint's Catalogue de Lorangère.) In the composition, the disposition of the parts, and in the distribution of light, C. is not particularly eminent; but, in the single parts of his pieces, he is very successful. His drawing is correct; the attitudes mostly pleasing; the groups have considerable variety; harsh contrasts are avoided; the expression is vigorous; and the execution displays the ease of a master. He is particularly distinguished by the drawing of the little figures with which he has filled all his pieces. Most of them, except sacred subjects, are representations of battles, sieges, dances, festive processions. The Misères et Malheurs de la Guerre, in 18 pieces, are considered the best. He executed works of this kind for Cosmo II of Florence, Louis XIII of France, and the duke of Lorraine. He was so strongly inclined to the comic, that this disposition appears even in his representations of sacred subjects, for instance, in the Temptation of St. Anthony. He not only introduced some burlesque and grotesque figures in his engravings, but executed whole pictures in this style, in which his whole art is displayed. His Fair and his Beggars are called his best pieces. He was the first who used, in his etchings, the hard varnish-the vernice grosso dei lignaiuoli of the Italians. He died at Nancy, in 1635. He was distinguished for piety, magnanimity, and larity of life. (See the biography of C. by Gersaint, or that of Husson, Paris, 1766.)

regu

CALLUS is a preternatural hardness, whether carneous or osseous. The new growth of bony substance between the extremities of fractured bones, by which they are united, is an instance of the latter. External friction or pressure produces the former, as in the hands of laborers, and the feet of persons who wear tight shoes. (See Corns.)

CALMAR, the principal city of Sma

land, in Sweden, on the Baltic sea, is situated opposite to Oland, on the island of Quarnholm, and contains 4500 inhabitants. It has a small but good harbor, and carries on considerable trade in timber, alum and tar. It has also manufactures of woollen cloth, and is the residence of a bishop, and of the governor of the province. The well-fortified castle of C. lies outside of the city, on the strait of Oland. (For the ordinance called the Union of Calmar, see Margaret, queen of Denmark and Norway.)

CALMET, Augustine, distinguished as an exegetical and historical writer, born in 1672, at Mesnil-la-Horgne, in the diocese of Toul, entered, in 1688, into the Benedictine order at Toul, and studied chiefly in the abbey of Moyen-Moutier. Here he became, in 1698, teacher of philosophy and theology; in 1728, abbot of Senones, in Lorraine, and died, in 1757, at Paris. He was a judicious compiler of voluminous works, such as Commentaire sur tous les Livres de l'Anc. et de Nouv. Test. (Paris, 1707-16, 23 vols. 4to.), Dictionnaire Hist. et Crit. de la Bible (4 vols.), Histoire Eccl. et Civile de Lorraine (4 vols.) Acuteness and taste are wanting in his writings, and they have been censured both in France and in other countries.

CALMS, REGION OF. In the Atlantic ocean, between the tropic of Cancer and lat. 29° N., and on the confines of the trade-winds, between 4° and 10° N. lat., calms of long duration prevail; and hence these tracts are called the calm latitudes, or the regions of calms. In the latter tract, particularly, these perpetual calms are accompanied by a suffocating heat, by thunder-storms and floods of rain, so that it is sometimes called the rainy sea. The only winds that occur are sudden squalls of short duration and little extent. In these calms, the provisions are corrupted, the seams open, and the stagnant air breeds disease. When a ship is in this position, if the currents set in towards rocks, and the sea is too deep to cast anchor, her destruction is almost inevitable. In the Mediterranean, where there are no tides, dead calms are more common than in the open ocean; but they are often the presages of approaching storms.

CALMUCS (Oelot, Eleuthes); the most remarkable branch of the Mongol race. They themselves maintain, that their primitive residence was situated between the Koko-Noor (the Blue Lake) and Thibet. Long before the time of Genghis Khan, a part of this people is said to have made an expedition to the west, as far as

Asia Minor, and to have lost themselves there among the mountains of Caucasus; but the rest, who had remained in Great Tartary, received, from their Tartar neighbors, the name of Khalimik (the separated). In fact, they call themselves, to this day, Khalimik, though Oelot, which signifies the same thing, continues to be their proper appellation. They have been divided, at least since the dismemberment of the Mongol empire, into four principal branches, called Khoschot, Derbet, Soongar, and Torgot. The greater portion of the Khoschot Calmucs has remained in and around Thibet and on the KokoNoor, and is said to have been under the protection of the Chinese since the downfall of the Soongar Calmucs. The smaller portion of this tribe had, long before, retired to the Irtish, and finally fell under the dominion of the Soongar horde, with which it took part in the war against China, and was dispersed with them. The horde of the Khoschots (warriors), which is still united under the Chinese sovereignty, received its name from the courage which it displayed under Genghis, and is rated at 50,000 souls. For this reason, and also because the family of their princes derives its origin immediately from the brother of the great Genghis, the Khoschots maintain the first rank among the Calmuc tribes. A part of them, about 1800 families, settled on the Wolga in 1759, and voluntarily submitted to the Russian sovereignty. At the dismemberment of the Mongol empire, the Soongar Calmucs constituted but one tribe with the Derbets, which was afterwards divided between two brothers of their princely family. In the 17th century, and the beginning of the 18th, this horde subjected a great part of the other Calmuc tribes, especially the Khoschot, Derbet and Khoit, and carried on bloody wars, both with the Mongols and with the Chinese empire, which terminated in their entire subjugation and dispersion. They were regarded as the bravest, richest and most powerful horde. The Derbet Calmucs, whose pasturegrounds were originally situated in the region of the Koko-Noor, departed from thence on account of the Mongol disturbances towards the Irtish, and separated into two parties. One of them became united with the Soongars, and was finally destroyed with them. The other settled on the Ural, Don and Wolga, and the majority of them joined the Torgots, but afterwards separated from them. The Torgot (Wolgaic) Calmucs seem to have

been formed into a distinct horde, later than the other Calmuc branches. In the very beginning, they separated from the restless Soongars, and settled on the Wolga; for which reason, the Russians, to whom they submitted in 1616, called them the Wolgaic Calmucs. But, the oppression of the Russian government having excited dissatisfaction among them, they returned to Soongary in 1770, and put themselves under the Chinese protection. Here, however, strict measures were at first adopted against them. All these different tribes were formerly, or are at present, under the rule of their own khans, who are tributary to the government under which the horde lives. There is also a colony of baptized Calmucs, to which the Russian government has granted a fertile territory, with the city Stavropol, in the Orenberg district of the government Ufa. This colony has been much augmented of late. In the same district, there is likewise a small colony of Mohammedan Calmucs, formed of proselytes which the Kirghises have made and received among themselves.

CALOMEL. (See Mercury.)

CALONNE, Charles Alexander de, born in 1734, at Douai, where his father was first president of the parliament, studied at Paris, devoted himself to the duties of an advocate at Artois, went as attorneygeneral (procureur général) to the parliament of Douai, and was, in 1763, appointed maitre des requêtes, in 1768, intendant of Metz, and afterwards of Lille. This was his situation on the death of Louis XV. The minister Maurepas, returning from a long exile, had placed successively in the office of minister of finance, Turgot and Necker, Fleury and Ormesson. In November, 1783, after the death of Maurepas, they were succeeded by C., who found the finances already in disorder. Besides the loans and the arrears accumulated under preceding ministers, 176 millions had been raised in advance. C. concealed his embarrassment, and assumed an appearance as if all was well. He despised the expedient of retrenchment, paid the instalments which were due, supported the public paper by secret advances of money, hastened the payment of the interest of the public debt, made great improvements in the farming of the royal monopolies and of the public lands, established the credit of the caisse d'escompte, projected a sinking-fund, and undertook a new coinage of gold money, as if no difficulties existed. At first, he followed the system of loans, which was

begun before him. According to his estimate, the government had, from 1776 to 1786, borrowed 1250 millions. The annual deficit amounted, however, to 115 millions. This, nevertheless, was to be reduced, in 1797, to 55 millions. To this end, the revenues of the state, which might then amount to 475 millions, should have been increased to 590 millions. C.'s first operations were calculated only for the moment; the national debt rested on no good security. To provide this, the only means was a new system of taxation, and C. proposed it. His two principal instruments were a general land-tax, payable in kind, and an increase of the stamp-tax. Since, however, it was foreseen, that the execution of a plan which called for sacrifices from the two highest ranks of the nation, till this time unheard of, would meet with much opposition from them, and yet a general assembly of the states seemed too dangerous, C. chose a middle course, which seemed to be favorable to the accomplishment of his design. He proposed an assembly of the notables, chosen from the most respectable members of the two first orders, the magistrates and the heads of the most important municipalities. On the 22d of February, 1787, the notables held their first session at Versailles. The report of the minister of finance was impatiently expected. He delivered it with all the ability of which he was capable; but this could not diminish the ill impression of his explanations. The deficit of 115 millions was greater than had been feared. C. traced the origin of this from the administration of Terray; asserted that it amounted then to 40 millions; that, from 1776 to 1783, it had increased about as much more; and, at last, confessed that he himself had increased it about 35 millions from that time till 1786. Lafayette appeared at the head of those numerous complainants who now came forward against C.; but the king seemed, at first, to support his minister. The keeper of the great seal, C.'s constant adversary, was dismissed. This triumph was, however, of short duration. Independently of the friends of Lafayette and Necker, a third party came forward against him-that party which brought into the ministry the archbishop of Toulouse, Loménie-Brienne. court was alarmed at the delays of the assembly of the notables, and the ferment which it excited. C. was deprived of his office, and banished to Lorraine. Thence he went to England, where he received a flattering invitation from the empress

The

Catharine II. He now employed himself in refuting the charges which were brought against him. In his petition addressed to the king about the end of 1787, he takes a review of all his ministerial operations, and endeavors to prove that he had always for his object the improvement of the finances. The archbishop of Toulouse, his successor, had informed him of the personal displeasure of the king; the parliaments of Grenoble, Toulouse, Besançon, had made him the object of public animadversion; the parliament of Paris had come forward formally against him. C. defended himself against all these attacks. He besought the king to declare, that he had constantly acted by his express command or with his consent, and offered, in case the king should be silent, to justify himself before the tribunal of peers, before which he had been accused. To all the charges brought against him, his friends opposed this fact, which is certainly true, that he retired from the ministry poor. In a letter of C. to the king, Feb. 9, 1789, containing political reflections, and principally directed against Necker, he manifested the intention of offering himself a candidate for the states-general. He actually made his appearance in the electoral assembly of the nobility of Bailleul, but returned to London without effecting his purpose, where he employed himself in writing on the state of affairs in France. The revolution had, in the mean time, begun. C. took part in it with a zeal which seemed to exceed his powers. His negotiations, his journeys to Germany, Italy and Russia, his perseverance, his attachment to their cause, made him invaluable to the party which he served. In order to assist his unfortunate party with the pen, he wrote his Tableau de l'Europe en Novembre, 1795, remarkable on account of its warmth, and its faithful delineation of events. From that time he lived in London, principally occupied with the fine arts, which he had always cultivated with taste. In 1802, he returned to Paris, where he died in October of the same year. Such was the career of a minister who gave the first impulse to the French revolution. He possessed, in a high degree, the qualities requisite to a great statesman-an accurate acquaintance with details, together with comprehensive views, and the power of conceiving extensive projects. But, if wisdom which matures the conceptions, if a prophetic glance which foresees all the impediments, if consistency and a spirit of method which

provides for the success of the execution, are essential to a statesman, then C. can lay no claim to that title. A knowledge of human nature was wanting in his character. His morals were far from being strict. His works, among which his speeches and memorials to the notables deserve the first place, are valuable contributions to the history of financial administration.

CALORIC is the name given, in chemistry, to that agent which produces the phenomena of heat and combustion. It is hypothetically regarded as a subtile fluid, the particles of which repel one another, and are attracted by all other substances. It is imponderable, and, by its distribution, in various proportions, among the particles of matter, gives rise to the three general forms of gas, liquids and solids. The particles of water, by losing caloric, have their cohesion so much increased, that they assume the solid form of ice; by adding caloric, they again become fluid; and by a still further addition, they are converted into vapor.Caloric exists in two different states-free or uncombined, and in a state of combination. In the former condition, it creates the sensation of heat, and produces expansion in other bodies. The power which any body has of exciting the sensation of heat, and occasioning expansion, is understood by the expression of its temperature. This is supposed to vary with the quantity of free caloric in a given quantity of matter; a high temperature being ascribed to the presence of a large quantity of free caloric, and a low temperature to that of a small quantity. We are ignorant, however, of the extremes of temperature, and may compare it to a chain, of which a few of the middle links, only, are exposed to our observation, while its extremities are concealed from our view.-The expansion of bodies is one of the most universal effects of an increase of temperature. This increase in bulk, however, is not the same in all bodies. The same increase of temperature causes liquids to expand more than solids, and aëriform bodies much more than either. On this principle are constructed the various instruments for measuring temperature; since the degree of expansion produced by caloric bears a sufficient proportion to its quantity to afford us the means of ascertaining it with tolerable accuracy. Our senses, it is obvious, are quite inadequate to afford us this information; for we compare our sensations of heat, not with any fixed or