from the conflagration. A considerable number of his pictures, however, still exist in and out of Copenhagen. The wounded Philocletes is as vigorous as his Cupid is delicate; both are executed in the style of a master. There are also an excellent Socrates, Jupiter weighing the fate of man, and others. His last works were four large paintings, representing scenes from Terence. Nearly all his works are those of a painter formed by the study of the ancients, and of the remains of antiquity. Nothing escaped his observation, which stood in the remotest relation to his art. He was likewise a distinguished lecturer in the royal academy of arts, and has left several disciples, painters as well as sculptors, who do honor to their master and to their country; amongst whom, superior to all the rest, is Thorwaldsen. A. acquired reputation as a writer by some short essays, the object of which was, partly, to correct a false taste in regard to the arts, partly to illustrate the earlier works of art.

ABIPONIANS; a warlike tribe of Indians, between 28° and 30° S. lat., on the banks of the Rio de la Plata, consisting of 5000 persons, who pay little attention to agriculture, but employ themselves principally in hunting and fishing. During the five rainy months, they resort to the islands of the Rio de la Plata, or to the tops of trees. The Abiponians prefer the flesh of tigers to every other meat, superstitiously believing that it gives new courage to the warrior. Long lances, and arrows with iron points, are their weapons. They are often at war with the Spaniards. Their wives are not much browner than the Spanish ladies. The men are tall, with aquiline noses, are good swimmers, and fond of painting figures on their skin. Their caziques are, in times of peace, their judges, in war their leaders. In peace, however, their authority is very limited; for if a cazique should attempt an unpopular innovation, the multitude would leave him, and join other tribes.

ABJURATION, Oath of; the oath by which an Englishman binds himself not to acknowledge any right in the pretender to the throne of England. It signifies, also, according to 25 Charles II., an oath abjuring particular doctrines of the church of Rome.

ABLEGATI; in diplomatic language, papal ambassadors of the second rank, who are sent with a less extensive commission, to a court where there are no nuncios. This title is equivalent to envoy. (See Ambassador.)

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ABO (in Finnish, Turku) contains 1100 houses, and 11,300 inhabitants. Since 1817, it has ceased to be the capital of the government of Finland. The Russian administration has endeavored, however, to support it by other means; and it continues to be the capital city of a district, as well as the seat of a Lutheran bishopric, (in 1817, raised to an archbishopric,) and of the supreme court of justice for South Finland. The mouth of the river Aurajocki, protected by a promontory of the gulf of Bothnia, forms the harbor of the city, which, since 1817, has been the chief place of export from Finland to Sweden, and even to the Mediterranean. It has important sugarworks, and manufactures of leather, linen, sail-cloth, cordage, glass, coarse broadcloth, &c. Many ships are built in its docks. The academy which Gustavus Adolphus established in 1628 was changed by Christina, queen of Sweden, into a university, which was endowed still more liberally by the emperor Alexander. It had, in 1824, forty professors, and more than 500 students, a library of 30,000 vols., a botanical garden, an observatory, an anatomical building, and a chemical laboratory, a cabinet of medals and minerals, a collection of mechanical and agricultural models, a society for the promotion of science, one for natural history, a Bible society, &c. In the autumn of 1827, the whole city, including the buildings and library of the university, was burnt down. The Russian government has taken energetic measures for rebuilding it.

Aво, peace of. Aug. 17, 1743, Sweden here concluded peace with Russia. This ended the war which broke out Aug. 24, 1741, between Russia and Sweden, at the instigation of France, in order to prevent Russia from partaking in the Austrian war of succession. In this war, after the victory of Lacy, near Wilmanstrand, Sept. 3, 1741, the Russians conquered all Finland, in consequence of the mistakes of the Swedish generals, Löwenhaupt and Buddenbrog. The empress Elizabeth promised, however, to give up a great part of her conquests, if Sweden would choose the prince Adolphus Frederic of Holstein-Gottorp, bishop of Lubec, heir to the Swedish crown, instead of the crown-prince of Denmark. This was done July 4, 1743. Thus, in 1751, the house of Holstein-Gottorp took possession of the Swedish throne, which it lost again after the abdication of Gustavus IV., in consequence of a resolution of the states of the kingdom, May 10, 1809, which took effect upon the death of

Charles XIII., Feb. 5, 1818. After this election, the treaty of peace was signed at A., in which Sweden ceded to Russia the Finnish province of Kymmenégord, with the cities and fortresses of Fredericshamm and Wilmanstrand, and the city and fort of Nyslot. From that time, the river Kymmené has been the boundary between Sweden and Russia, until the latter power obtained the whole of Finnland, at the peace of Fredericshamm, Sept. 17, 1809. June 25, 1745, peace was concluded between Sweden and Russia, at St. Petersburg.

ABOLITION. (See Pardon, right of.) ABOLITION of slavery. The Society for mitigating and gradually abolishing the State of Slavery throughout the British Dominions, sometimes called the Anti-slavery Society, has been recently formed. His R. H. the duke of Gloucester is president of the society. In the list of the vice-presidents are the names of many of the most distinguished philanthropists, and, among them, that of the never-to-be-forgotten champion of the negro's cause, Mr. Wilberforce. The society has already published several works illustrative of the state of slavery, and pointing out its evils in a commercial, political, and religious point of view. (See Slavery, Colonization Society and Wilberforce.) The more immediate objects of the society are to ameliorate the condition of the slaves, and to facilitate the means by which they may obtain their freedom; and, for the accomplishment of these purposes,-To remove all the existing obstructions to the manumission of slaves: To cause the slaves to cease to be chattels in the eye of the law: To prevent their removal, as slaves, from colony to colony, and, under certain modifications, their sale or transfer, except with the land to which they may be attached: To abolish markets and compulsory labor on Sunday, and to make it a day of rest, as well as of religious worship and instruction; and also to secure to the slaves equivalent time in each week, in lieu of Sunday, and in addition to any time which, independently of Sunday, is now afforded them, for cultivating their provision grounds: To protect the slaves, by law, in the possession and transmission of the property they may thus or in any other way acquire: To enable the slave to purchase his freedom by the payment at once of a fair price for his redemption, or of a fifth part of that price at a time, in return for an additional day in the week to be employed for his own benefit: To make the testimony of

slaves available in courts of justice, both in civil and criminal cases: To relieve all negroes and persons of color from the burden of legally proving their freedom, when brought into question, and to throw on the claimant of their persons the burden of legally proving his right to them: To provide the means of religious instruction for the black and colored population, and of Christian education for their children: To institute marriage among the slaves, and to protect that state from violation and from either forcible or voluntary disruption: To put an end to the driving system: To put an end, also, to the arbitrary punishment of slaves, and to put their persons as well as property under the guardianship of the law: To provide that all children born after a certain day shall be free,-care being taken of their education and maintenance until they shall be capable of acting for themselves: To provide that no colonial governor, judge, attorney-general or fiscal, shall be a possessor of slaves, or shall have a direct and obvious reversionary interest in such property, or shall be the agent of the proprietors of slaves. The society has further proposed, that the final extinction of slavery should be accomplished by the redemption of all females from the lowest age, to about 40; by which means all their posterity would be born free. The cost of this measure is estimated at 300,000l.; but should parliament refuse to accede to this or some other effective plan, the society trust that their object will, nevertheless, be obtained by bringing free labor into competition with slave labor; so that the latter shall become of so little value as to be not worth retaining. The parent society is supported by many auxiliaries, not fewer than 250 of which are in active operation in various parts of the kingdom; and if they continue to proceed with the energy that has hitherto marked their progress, there can be little doubt that they will finally succeed in a cause, in which truth, justice, and the dictates of religion, are arrayed on their side.

ABORIGINES; the name given to the eldest inhabitants of a country, of whose origin nothing certain is known. The Roman historians give this name to the people who dwelt in the vicinity of Rome, before the arrival of the Trojans. Different derivations of the word are given. For the right of aborigines to the soil, see Indians, and Occupancy, right of.

ABOUKIR, the ancient Canopus, is at present a village with 100 Arabian inhabit

ants: it has a strong castle on the western side of a spacious bay, protected by a projecting point of land and several small islands, and is situated on the Egyptian coast, 10 miles east of Alexandria. This place has become distinguished, in modern times, by the naval battle, in which the English admiral Nelson annihilated the French fleet, between the first and the third of August, 1798. May 19, 1798, the latter sailed from the harbor of Toulon, to convey an army to Egypt, under the command of general Buonaparte. As soon as the English admiral St. Vincent, who was cruising before Cadiz, received information of this, he despatched rear-admiral Nelson, with 14 ships of the line, to the Mediterranean, with orders to seek and attack the French fleet. Aug. 1, Nelson caught a glimpse of the French ships in the road of A. and gave the signal of battle. The French captains, who were just then assembled on board the admiral's ship, had hardly time to retire to their posts, before the first English ship began the attack. Although the French fleet was disposed in a curved line, as near as possible to a small island, protected by a battery of cannon and mortars, Nelson suddenly ordered half of his force to break through, between. the island and the French line of battle, and to sail under the shore, in their rear, while the other half approached their front, and anchored within pistol shot; so that the French ships were attacked from all sides. At sunset, about half past 6 o'clock in the evening, the battle began. At the end of an hour, 5 French ships were dismasted and taken. The French admiral, Brueys, was killed by a cannon-ball; his ship, L'Orient, however, continued the battle with great spirit, until she took fire. About 10 o'clock, this splendid vessel, of 120 guns, blew up. Of 1000 men, but 70 or 80 were saved. Capt. Casabianca was mortally wounded, and his son, a boy 12 years old, voluntarily remained in the burning ship, and shared his fate. The other ships continued the cannonade till the morning, which witnessed the entire defeat of the French fleet. But 2 ships of the line and 2 frigates escaped to Malta and Corfu; 9 ships of the line were taken, 1 blown up, and another, together with a frigate, burned by the French themselves; 1 frigate, however, was sunk. Thus the naval power of France in the Mediterranean was a second time annihilated; the British flag waved triumphant from Gibraltar to Alexandria; Buonaparte's communica2

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tion with France was cut off, and his enemies, with renovated hopes, united again, in the subsequent year, in a new coalition. (See Egypt, landing of the French in.)

ABOULFEDA. (See Abulfeda.)

ABOUT; the situation of a ship immediately after she has tacked, or changed her course.

ABRACADABRA; a term of incantation, which was formerly believed to have the power of curing fevers, especially the slow fevers, the intermittent of 4 days, and the hemitritæus, so called by Hippocrates, which was generally fatal. At present, this word is, for the most part, used in jest, without any particular meaning, like hocus pocus. According to Q. Serenus Sammonicus, it ought to be written so as to form a magic triangle, in order to produce the supposed effect; viz. ABRACADABRA BRACADABR RACADAB

or as follows:

ACADA

CAD
A

A br a с a d a b r a.
A b r a с a d abr
A b r a с a d a b
A br a с a d a
A b r a с a d
A b r a с a
A b r a с

A br a A b r

A b

A The triangle, thus formed, reads Abracadabra, beginning with A, and thence passing over to any line you please, and stopping at the last letter of the first line. Greek amulets, which bear the inscription ABPAKAAABPA, leave no doubt that this magic word, properly, ought to be pronounced Abrasadabra, though the Jews say also Abracalan. Abrasadabra probably means divine decree, and is derived from the sacred name of the Supreme Being, Abrasax, or Abras. Others are of opinion that the term Abrasar took its origin from the first letters of the Hebrew words Ab, Ben, Ruach hakodesh, (Father, Son and Holy Ghost,) and from the initials of the Greek words, owrŋgia àñò

ou, (salvation from the wood of the cross.) Abrasax is neither an Ægyptian, nor Greek, nor Hebrew, but a Persian name, which denotes the Persian deity, Mithras.-Superstitious people, moreover,

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used to write the word Abracadabra, in the manner above-mentioned, on a square piece of paper; then folded it so as to cover the writing, sewed it together with white thread, hung it, by a piece of tape, around the neck, so as to reach the heart, wore it for 9 days, and then went, before sunrise, in profound silence, to a river which flowed to the east, took it from the neck, and threw it, but without opening or reading it, into the water over their heads.

ABRAHAM; the father, and most celebrated patriarch of the Jews, with whom their history commences, as, likewise, the promises given them by God, and the miracles performed in their favor. He was born at Ur, in Chaldæa, about 2000 B. C., and descended in the eighth generation from Shem, Noah's eldest son. He passed his early days in the house of his father, Terah, where he was kept from idolatry, which prevailed in his family. Obedient to the voice of God, which pointed out his noble destiny, and commanded him to settle in Canaan, he went to that country with his father, his wife, and his nephew, and fixed his abode at Haran, in Mesopotamia. After his father's death, he led a wandering life, in obedience to the will of God. He visited Sichem, Bethel, and Gerara, whence he returned to Bethel. Frequent dissensions between his servants and those of Lot caused their final separation. A. remained at Mamre, but Lot settled in Gomorrah. Afterwards, on hearing that four Arabian chiefs had invaded Gomorrah, and carried off Lot with his family and property, A. pursued them with 318 servants, conquered them, and rescued his nephew, and all that belonged to him. God revealed futurity to A. and ratified his covenant with him and his posterity, by the law of circumcision. The advanced age of A. and Sarah seemed to render doubtful the fulfilment of these promises, when three angels, in the shape of travellers, came to visit them. They were sent to punish Sodom and Gomorrah for their wickedness, and announced that, at their return, Sarah would be a mother. Though she was 90 years old, she conceived, and bore Isaac, at the time designated by the angel. When Isaac had reached his 25th year, God wished to put A.'s fidelity to a new trial, and commanded him to sacrifice his only son, on mount Moriah. The old man was ready to obey. The victim was already placed on the altar, and about to receive the fatal stroke, when God, convinced of

the obedience of his servant, stopped his lifted arm. Sarah died, but A. married Keturah, who bore him 6 more children. He died 175 years old, and was buried near Sarah, in a cave which he had bought for his sepulchre from the sons of Heth. Not only the Jews, but also the Arabians, derive their origin from this patriarch: the Greek and Roman churches have introduced his name into their legends. He is also mentioned in the Koran, and some of the Mahometan writers assert that A. went to Mecca, and commenced the erection of the temple. The Jews have at all times honored his tomb and his memory. His history, as given by the rabbins, is a mixture of truth and fiction.

His

ABRAHAM a Sancta Clara; born in Krähenheimstetten, in Suabia, June 4, 1642. His true name was Ulrich Megerle. He was distinguished, as a preacher, for the originality of his conceptions. At Marienbrunn, in the south of Austria, he joined, in 1662, the barefooted friars of the order of St. Augustin, applied himself to philosophy and theology, in a monastery of his order at Vienna, was then employed as preacher in the convent of Taxa, in Bavaria, and soon called to preach at the imperial court of Vienna, where he continued till the year 1709, when he died, 67 years old. His sermons are burlesque, and full of the strangest notions. striking peculiarities, agreeable, however, to the spirit of his age, procured him a numerous audience, and his sermons were not without effect, since they treated of popular subjects, and were seasoned with much sarcasm, adapted to all ranks. The titles of some of his writings show the tone in which they are composed: as, Fy on the World, or, about Virtue and Vice; Salutary Mixture; Abraham a Sancta Clara's Nest of newly-hatched Fools, or curious Workshop of various Fools, both male and female, etc. A. was, by nature, a popular orator; he joined to an odd exterior a strong mind, endowed with a thorough knowledge of mankind, and a fervent love of truth. With the boldest frankness, he scourges the follies of his age, and vigorously attacks the weak mysticism and pedantry of most preachers of his time.

ABRAHAM, heights of. (See Quebec.) ABRAHAMITES, Abrahamians, or deists of Bohemia, were a number of ignorant peasants, who came forth from their obscurity in 1782, confiding in the edict of toleration published by Joseph II., and avowed the same belief which Abraham

professed before the law of circumcision. The doctrine of the unity of God, and the Lord's prayer, were all which they regarded in the Bible. Their petition for freedom in religious worship was, however, rejected, because they refused to declare themselves Jews, or members of any of the established Christian sects. The emperor Joseph, less enlightened in matters of religion than is generally beheved, drove these honest people, in 1783, from their possessions, because they resisted all attempts made for their conversion, and dispersed them, by military force, among various places, on the boundaries of Hungary, Transylvania, and Sclavonia, where they were compelled to embrace the Roman Catholic faith, and the men to join the frontier militia. Many of them adhered firmly to their religious principles.

ABRANTES; a city of 3,500 inhabitants, on the right bank of the Tagus, in the province of Estramadura, in Portugal. It is considered as of great military importance, on account of its situation on a number of steep hills, forming a defile; by reason, likewise, of its old castle, converted into a citadel; and of the river, which is navigable as far as this place. The Portuguese, in this fortress, braved the Spaniards as early as 1762. In 1808, the army under Junot arrived at A., after a dangerous and tedious march along the banks of the Tagus, through the woody, mountainous and barren Beira. Junot ordered the castle, as well as the city, which he found ungarrisoned, to be placed in a state of defence; and, in spite of the great fatigue of his troops, hastened to Lisbon, then occupied by 15,000 Portuguese soldiers, and inhabited by 350,000 souls. The quickness of his march, and the daring courage with which he took possession of this capital, at the head of only 1500 grenadiers, induced Napoleon to make him duke of Abrantes. At a later period, however, he committed gross mistakes. At the capitulation of Cintra, A. was surrendered to the English, who made it still stronger. It was, however, of no importance during the remainder of the war, except to Massena, who reconnoitred it at the time when he sat down before the strong position of the duke of Wellington, between Santarem and Peniche.

ABRASAX. (See Abraxas.)

ABRAXAS STONES, or ABRASAX STONES, are very numerous, and represent a human body, with the head of a cock and the feet of a reptile. The inscription

15

Abraxas or Abrasax is often found on them, in Greek characters, which betray, however, a foreign origin. Bellermann, in his Essay on the Gems of the Ancients, bearing the Image of Abraxas, Berlin, 1817, declares only those having the above inscriptions to be genuine. The gems which have been imported into Europe from Egypt and Asia, and are also found in Spain in great abundance, belonged, according to his opinion, to the religious sect of the Basilidians, and were used, partly as means to teach secret doctrines, partly as symbols, partly as amulets or talismans. Grotefend derives the name from the Persian language; Bellermann thinks it to be a composition of the Egyptian words Abrac and Sax, and renders it "the holy word of bliss," which reminds us of the Tetragrammaton of the Jews. Different explanations have been proposed by others. The ancients attempted to give meaning to the word by considering the letters as Greek numerals, which make together 365.-The name of Abraxas stone is, in modern times, applied to a variety of gems that exhibit enigmatical compositions, strange words in foreign characters, as Ablanathanalba, &c., and even to those which bear the emblems of Sabæism, the sun and moon, with other symbols, which want, however, the characteristic type of the Basilidians. These are more properly called Abraxoids. The Basilidian names, seen on many stones of this class, are explained by Bellermann, by the aid of the Semitic languages. The interesting disquisition on this subject of Neander, professor at the university of Berlin, deserves to be carefully compared with the opinions advanced by Bellermann.

ABRIAL, André-Joseph, born March 19, 1750, at Annonay, department de l'Ardèche, at present count and peer of France, &c., studied law in Paris, and embraced the principles of the revolution, during which he was, for a long period, commissioner of the executive power in the court of cassation. In 1799, he organized the republican government in Naples. After the 18th of Brumaire, the first consul intrusted him with the ministry of justice, saying, as it is related, "Not I, but the public voice nominates you." After 18 months, he quitted this station, and entered the sénat conservateur. In 1804, he organized the department of justice in Italy, when the young Cisalpine republic was again dissolved. In 1811, he was made count of the empire, and was for 10 years a member of