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might happen on the latter of these days, the queen exerted all her power to excite her husband to meet death sword in hand. Led with him into the legislative assembly, she heard his deposition announced, together with the appointment of his judges, and then went with him to the temple. None of her female attendants were suffered to accompany her. Here she occupied the only comfortable chamber with her daughter and the princess Elizabeth. Close bars of iron secured the window, admitting only a glimmering light. She now exhibited the full strength of her character. Invariably calm in the circle of her friends, she urged them to disregard sickness and suffering. When Louis XVI informed her of his condemnation, she congratulated him on the approaching termination of an existence so painful, and the unperishing reward that should crown it. After her husband's death, she asked nothing of the convention but a mourning-dress, which she wore the remainder of her days. July 4, 1793, she was separated from her son. She felt that this separation was forever, yet her firmness was unchanged. Aug. 5, at midnight, she was removed to the keeper's house. A dark and damp dungeon here was her last abode. Oct. 3, the convention ordered her to be brought before the revolutionary tribunal. She was charged with having dissipated the finances, exhausted the public treasury, given large sums out of it to the emperor, with having corresponded with foreign enemies, and favored domestic tumults. But, notwithstanding the multitude of witnesses who were examined, no evidence could be brought against her; and her defender, ChauveauLagarde, exclaimed justly, "I am embarrassed, not to find answers, but plausible accusations." Bailly, then mayor of Paris, who was summoned as a witness, had the courage to take the queen into his protection, without hesitation, and to censure, with the greatest severity, her bloodthirsty accuser, Fouquier-Tinville, for his testimony, which all might see to be false. The queen herself replied to all inquiries with firmness and decision. When Hébert shamefully accused her of having seduced her own son, she answered, with the deepest indignation, "I appeal to every mother here, whether such a crime be possible." She heard her sentence of death with perfect calmness, and soon gently fell asleep, when she was carried back to her prison, after sitting 18 hours. The next day, at

11 o'clock, she ascended the cart which conveyed her to the scaffold. Great efforts were made to induce the people to insult her on the way, but a deep silence reigned. The charms for which she was once so celebrated were gone. Grief had distorted her features, and, in the damp, unhealthy prison, she had almost lost one of her eyes. Her look seemed to fill the fierce people with awe. At 12 o'clock, the cart arrived at the place of Louis XV. She cast back a long look at the Tuileries, and then ascended the scaffold. When she came to the top, she threw herself on her knees, and exclaimed, "O God, enlighten and affect my executioner! Farewell, my children, forever; I go to your father!" Thus died the queen of France, Oct. 16, 1793, towards the close of the 38th year of her age. (See Marie Antoinette, à la Conciergerie; Fragm. Hist. Publ. par le Comte de Robiano, Paris, 1824; and Mém. sur la Vie privée de Marie Antoinette, Reine de France, &c., by madame Campan (her reader), 5th edition, 4 vols., Paris, 1823.) ANTONELLO of Messenia. (See OilPainting.)

ANTONINUS (Annius Verus), the Philosopher, best known by the name of Marcus Aurelius, born A. D. 121, ascended the throne A. D. 161, after the death of Antoninus Pius, who had adopted him. He voluntarily divided the empire with Lucius Verus (see the succeeding article), whom he made emperor, and united in marriage with his daughter Lucilla. Brought up and instructed by Plutarch's nephew Sextus, the orator Herodes Atticus, and the famous jurist L. Volusius Mecianus, he had become acquainted with learned men, and formed a particular love for the Stoic philosophy. While his generals, Statius Priscus, Avidius Cassius, Marcius Verus and Fronto, overcame the Parthians, conquered Armenia, Babylon and Media, and destroyed the great city Seleucia, on the Tigris, he devoted his attention to Rome and Germany. The former was laid waste by pestilence, famine and inundations, the consequences of which he endeavored to mitigate; the latter kept the Roman territory in continual alarm, by frequent invasions which, however, were always repulsed. At the same time, he undertook to improve the morals of the people, and the administration of justice. After the ter mination of the Parthian war, both emperors celebrated a triumph, and assumed the title Parthicus. But a fearful pestilence soon broke out, with which the

eastern army infected all the countries they passed through. In addition to this, there were earthquakes, inundations, and a universal insurrection on the confines of the empire, from Gaul to the Black sea. Both emperors went to Aquileia, in order to attack the Marcomanni, early in the spring. A part of the enemy submitted for a time, but soon took up arms again. For 8 years, they fought with various success. Verus died, A. D. 169, in the first year of the war. A. D. 174, the enemy invaded Italy, and, as the treasury was exhausted, the emperor saw himself reduced to the necessity of selling the most valuable furniture of the palace. In the following campaigns, the Romans came off conquerors. A. D. 178, when the emperor, in the city Gran, in the war against the Quadi, was surrounded on every side by his enemies, he was reduced to extremity from want of water. A fearful tempest arose, a sudden shower refreshed the army, and the Quadi were vanquished. Afterwards, the Marcomanni, the Quadi, as well as the rest of the barbarians, sued for peace. The sedition of the Syrian governor, Avidius Cassius, who had brought Egypt and the region within mount Taurus to own his authority, called off the emperor from his conquests; but, before he reached Asia, the rebel was slain by his own party. Aurelius pardoned all who were engaged in the revolt, marched in triumph to Rome, and busied himself about the internal concerns of the empire, till new incursions of the Marcomanni compelled him once more to take the field. He conquered the enemy several times, but was taken sick at Sirmium, and died, according to Aurelius Victor, at Vindobona, in the 59th year of his age, and 19th of his reign.-The best editions of the Meditations, which he wrote in Greek, and in which he acknowledges himself a follower of the Stoics, are by Casaubon, London, 1643; Morus, Leipsic, 1775; and Schulz, 1802, translated by Schulz and Kuhn, with annotations.-Aurelius was one of the best emperors who ever governed Rome, although his philosophy and the natural magnanimity of his character did not restrain him from ordering the persecution of the Christians in Gaul. ANTONINUS PIUS (Titus Aurelius Fulvius), of a family originally from Nismes, in Gaul, was born at Lavinium, in the neighborhood of Rome, A. D. 86. His father, Aurelius Fulvius, had enjoyed the consulship, and, A. D. 120, he succeeded to the same dignity. He was one of the

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four persons of consular rank, among whom Adrian divided the supreme administration of Italy. He then went, as proconsul, to Asia, and, after his return to Rome, became more and more the object of Adrian's confidence. By his wife, Faustina, the daughter of Annius Verus, whose licentious conduct he wisely endeavored to conceal from the view of the world, he had 4 children. They all died but Faustina, who afterwards became the wife of Marcus Aurelius. A. D. 138, he was adopted by Adrian, for which reason he, in his turn, adopted L. Verus and M. Annius Verus (Marcus Aurelius). The same year, he ascended the throne, and under him the empire enjoyed tranquillity and happiness. Temperate and simple in his private life, ever ready to assist the necessitous, an admirer of virtue and wisdom, he was truly the father of his people. He often repeated those beautiful words of Scipio, "I had rather preserve the life of a citizen than destroy a thousand enemies." His wise frugality enabled him to diminish the taxes. The persecutions of the Christians he speedily abolished. He carried on but a few wars, viz. in Britain, where he extended the Roman dominion, and, by raising a new wall, put a stop to the desolating invasions of the Picts and Scots. The senate gave him the surname Pius, i. e. remarkable for filial affection, because, in gratitude to the memory of Adrian, his second father, he had built a temple in honor of him. Conflagrations, floods and earthquakes spread desolation in many places during his reign, but his generosity did much to mitigate the consequences of these unhappy events. He died A. D. 161, 74 years old, having reigned 23 years. His remains were deposited in the tomb of Adrian. The senate built a pillar to his memory, which is yet standing, under the name of the Antonine column. The whole kingdom lamented him, and the following emperors assumed his name as an honor. It has been said of him, "He is almost the only monarch that has lived without spilling the blood of his countrymen or his enemies."

ANTONINUS, the wall of; a barrier erected by the Romans across the isthmus between the Forth and the Clyde. It was constructed A. D. 140, and consisted of a ditch, from 12 to 14 feet wide, the wall being formed of the earth that was thrown up. This wall is now nearly demolished by the ploughshare. General Roy, in his 35th plate, has traced its course, and given plans of the station

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belonging to it. This wall was the third rampart built by the Romans against the incursions of the North Britons. It is called, by the people in the neighborhood, Graham's dyke.

ANTONIO, Nicholas; a native of Seville in Spain; born in the year 1617. After 22 years spent at Rome, in the capacity of agent-general for Spain, he returned to Madrid, and obtained a seat at the council-board. His works are, Bibliotheca Hispana Vetus, in 2 folio volumes; De Exilio, Lib. iii., folio, published in 1659; Bibliotheca Hispana Nova, 2 vols. folio, 1672, reprinted in 1783; and Censura de Historicis Fabulis, folio, 1742. His library was of great value. He died 1684.

ANTONIO, St.; a Dutch fort of Axim, on the Gold Coast of Africa. It belongs to the West India company. This is also a name of one of the cape de Verd islands, separated from St. Vincent by a narrow, navigable channel, 15 miles broad. The inhabitants, mostly Negroes, about 500 in number, live, notwithstanding all the plenty of the island, in wretched poverty. Lon. 0° 26 E.; lat. 18° 4' N.

ANTONIUS, Marcus, the triumvir, son of the prætor, and grandson of the orator of the same name, born 86 years B. C., was connected with the family of Cæsar by his mother Julia, a lady of distinguished excellence. Debauchery and prodigality marked his youth. To study eloquence and the art of war, he went to Greece, and from thence followed the consul Gabinius on a campaign in Syria. He showed much activity and courage here, as well as in Egypt, where he aided in the establishment of Ptolemy Aule

tes.

The soldiers, whom he treated with extreme generosity, indulgence and confidence, conceived a strong affection for him. In Rome, he united with Curio, and, like him, supported the party of Cæsar. He became augur and tribune of the people; but some of his projects excited such odium against him, that, with Curio and Cassius Longinus, he fled for refuge to the camp of Cæsar. This became one of the pretences for civil war. At the breaking out of this war between Cæsar and Pompey, A. was appointed by Cæsar commander-in-chief in Italy: he afterwards led a considerable force to Epirus, to his assistance. In the battle of Pharsalia, he commanded the left wing, and afterwards returned to Rome with the appointment of master of the horse and governor of Italy. He degraded himself so deeply by acts of excess and violence, that, on his return, Cæsar treated him

with great coldness. About this time, he married Fulvia, the widow of Clodius, who long ruled him. When Cæsar returned from Spain, A. regained his favor by the basest flattery, and, B. C. 44, became his colleague in the consulship. At the Lupercalia, he threw himself publicly at Cæsar's feet, and thrice offered him a diadem, which he exhibited amid the shouts of the people. Soon after Cæsar was assassinated, and A. would have shared the same fate, had not Brutus, who hoped to gain him over for the republic, stood up in his defence. A delivered, over the body of Cæsar, a funeral oration, in the course of which he spread out his garment stained with blood, and thus excited the people to anger and revenge. The murderers were obliged to flee, and A. long ruled with unlimited power. After having many times quarrelled with young Octavius, the heir of Cæsar, who aspired to the supreme power, and, from political motives, took the side of the senate, he was reconciled to him, and went with an army to Cisalpine Gaul, the government of which fell to his share, and laid siege to Mutina, which Decimus Brutus valiantly defended. In the mean time, Cicero delivered his famous orations against him. The senate declared him a public enemy, and both consuls, Hirtius and Pansa, accompanied by Octavius, met him in the field. At first, A. vanquished Pansa in a bloody battle, but Hirtius hastened to his aid, and A. was subdued. Both consuls, however, fell, and Octavius took the head of the republican army. A. fled with his troops over the Alps, amid great difficulties and privations. Lepidus then commanded in Gaul, and A. fled to his camp in mourning garments, and soon gained the affections of the army, so that Lepidus was obliged to resign the command to him. Plancus, also, and Pollio, strengthened his party with their forces; so that A., who, a short time before, had fled from Italy, returned now at the head of 23 legions and 10,000 horse. Octavius, who had hitherto appeared to be a supporter of the senate, and a defender of republican freedom, now suffered the mask to fall off. He marched against A. and Lepidus, and, on the small island of Reno, not far from Bologna, or, according to some, on the island of Panaro, near Modena, had that memorable meeting with them, in which they divided among themselves the whole Roman world. Here they decided upon the proscription of their mutual enemies: each gave up

his friends to the other. Upon this, the triumviri marched to Rome, and their steps were marked with murder and rapine throughout Italy. A. caused Cicero's head and right hand to be fixed up, as a spectacle, on that same rostrum from which his eloquence had so often been victorious. 300 senators and 2000 knights perished in this proscription. When the sum of money necessary for the war was procured, viz. 200,000,000 sesterces (about 6,300,000 dollars), and the triumviri had appointed magistrates for several years, B. C. 42, A. and Octavius departed for Macedonia, where the united forces of their enemies, Brutus and Cassius, formed a powerful army. At Philippi, A. commanded in an engagement against Cassius, who, when he perceived the event of the fatal battle, ordered one of his slaves to stab him. After the second battle, Brutus, also, destroyed himself. At the sight of his body, A. discovered the deepest emotion, covered it with his cloak, and gave orders that it should be interred with the highest honors. He then went to Greece, visited the public schools at Athens, and manifested his admiration of this city, splendid even in its ruins. Thence he proceeded to Asia. In Cilicia, he ordered Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, to apologize for her insolent behavior to the triumviri. She appeared in person, and her charms fettered him forever. He followed her to Alexandria, where, in a constant course of dissipation, he bestowed not even a thought upon the affairs of the world, till he was aroused by a report that hostilities had commenced in Italy, between his wife, Fulvia, and Octavius. A short war followed, which was decided in favor of Octavius, before the arrival of A. in Italy. The death of Fulvia facilitated a reconciliation, which was sealed by the marriage of A. with Octavia, the sister of Octavius. The two armies made a new division of the Roman dominions. A. obtained the East, Octavius the West. For mere form, Africa was consigned to the feeble Lepidus. With Sextus Pompey, who ruled the Mediterranean, a treaty was made. Upon this, A. went to Athens, made a campaign against the Parthians, which brought him but little honor, and then returned to Italy. By the interposition of Octavia, there appeared to be perfect harmony between the triumviri; but, after his return to Asia, A. gave himself up to a most abandoned course of life; lavished upon Cleopatra, without regard to the interests of the state, whole kingdoms and

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provinces; and exercised the most open injustice. After a second disgraceful campaign against the Parthians, he took Artavasdes, king of Armenia, prisoner, by treachery, accusing him of want of fidelity, and carried him, in triumph, to Alexandria. Octavius excited against A. the displeasure of the Romans, by a relation of his conduct. War between the two rivals was inevitable, and both began to prepare for it. Amid a round of pleasures, A. neglected his most important affairs, and filled the island of Samos, the rendezvous of his troops, with musicians and revellers, and, at the same time, divorced Octavia. These measures were followed by disapprobation as universal as the knowledge of Octavia's magnanimity and the hatred of Cleopatra's arrogance. At length, war was declared at Rome against the queen of Egypt, and A. was deprived of his consulship and government. Each party assembled its forces, and A. lost, in the naval battle at Actium (q. v.), B. C. 31, the dominion of the world. He disgracefully followed Cleopatra in her flight. The army on land waited in vain for his arrival, and at last surrendered to the conqueror. Upon this, he went to Libya, where a considerable host, which he had left there, was his last hope. On his arrival, he perceived that it had embraced the party of Octavius, and his grief on the discovery was so great, that he was, with much difficulty, prevented from committing suicide. He returned to Egypt, and lived in obscurity, till Cleopatra succeeded in bringing him back to her palace and to his former mode of life. Her festivals were interrupted by the arrival of Octavius, who refused all proposals of submission. At his appearance before Alexandria, A. seemed to recover all his former courage. He marched out at the head of his cavalry, and repulsed the hostile forces; but afterwards, deserted by the Egyptian fleet and his army, and suspecting that he was betrayed by Cleopatra, he again lost his courage. retired to the palace of the queen, in order to take vengeance upon her; she fled, however, and deceived him by a false report of her death. Resolved to dic with her, he fell upon his own sword, B. C. 30. Plutarch relates, that A. commanded his slave Eros to slay him; the slave, pretending to be ready to obey, requested him to turn away his face, and then, stabbing himself, fell dead at his feet. Moved by this exhibition of heroic affection, A. threw himself upon the

He

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same sword. On being told that Cleopatra was still alive, he caused himself to be carried into her presence, that he might die in her arms. (See Augustus and Cleopatra.)

ANTONY, Mark. (See Antonius, Marcus.) ANTRAIGUES (Emanuel Louis Henry Launey), comte d'. This man, who became distinguished as a statesman during the revolution, was born in Bivarais. His tutor, the famous abbé Maury, early cultivated his talents for a splendid and captivating, though unsubstantial eloquence. He made the first public display of his talents in the renowned Mémoire sur les États Généraux, leurs Droits et la Manière de les convoquer, A. D. 1788, in which his love of liberty, extending to the entire condemnation of all despotic governments, and the justification of resistance, was expressed with such force, that, in the excitement of the age, the work was honored with the greatest applause, and may justly be regarded as one of the first sparks that lighted the flame of the French revolution. But when he was appointed deputy to the states general, in 1789, he defended the privileges of hereditary nobility, was among those who most violently opposed the intended union of the three estates, and voted for a constitution fixing the rights of man, or rather of citizens, in which he declared the veto of the king an indispensable support of monarchy. In 1790, he left the assembly, renounced his oath of citizenship, with certain limitations, was accused of disturbing the public peace, openly defended himself, and then went to Petersburg and Vienna, engaged, continually, in diplomatic business. He was now the most zealous defender of monarchy and the Bourbons. Having been sent from Russia to Italy, in 1798, he was imprisoned, by order of Bonaparte, at Milan. His wife, the renowned opera singer St. Huberti, procured for him the means of escape. He returned to Vienna, and then to Russia, where, in 1803, he was made counsellor of state by Alexander I, and sent on public business to Dresden. He wrote here a remarkable work against Napoleon-Fragment du 18me Livre de Polybe, trouvé sur le Mont Athos. After ais return to Russia, he found means to become acquainted with the secret articles of the peace of Tilsit, went to England, and communicated them to the ministry, by which means his influence became so great, that Canning did nothing in relation to France without his advice. He maintained his diplomatic

connexions, especially in France, and was every where esteemed one of the first politicians on the stage. In spite of his attachment to the Bourbons, and his numerous struggles in their behalf, he did not succeed in gaining, entirely, the confidence of Louis XVIII. In 1812, he was murdered, in a village near London, to gether with his wife, by his servant Lorenzo, an Italian, who, immediately after, shot himself also.

ANTWERP (Anvers, French; Amberes, Spanish; Antwerpen, German and Dutch); a large, well-built capital of a province of the same name in the Netherlands, which, in 1814, was formed out of the former marquisate of A. and the lordship of Mechlin, which, under the French government, had composed the department of the two Nethes. The province contains 1017 square miles, and 287,347 inhabitants. The city lies on the Scheldt; E. lon. 4° 24'; N. lat. 51° 13'. The largest vessels can ascend the river to the wharfs of A. on 8 chief canals and 3 basins, built by the French. The city contains 60,000 inhabitants, is strongly fortified, has a citadel, more than 10,000 houses, among which is the magnificent exchange, the oldest in Europe; also the council-house, the cathedral, in which Rubens (whose family was from A.) lies buried, the ample house of the Ostrelins (the former warehouse of the Hanseatic league), &c. A. is the see of a bishop, contains an academy of sciences, an academy of painting and sculpture, a medico-surgical school, and a marine arsenal. Its manufactures of laces, sugar, white lead, litmus, cotton cloth and fine thread are very important. Its sewing-silk, black silk stuff and printers' ink are known throughout Europe. Its commerce has greatly increased since the Scheldt was once more opened; and, in 1828, 955 vessels, amongst which were 73 from America, entered this port. Before the war of the Netherlands with Spain, A. was even more important than Amsterdam, which increased very much by the decline of A., in the 16th century. At that time, the Scheldt was covered with vessels belonging to all nations, of which, at one time, 2500 lay in the harbor. An animated description of the commerce and activity of A., at that period, is given in Schiller's introduction to his Thirty Years' War. It then had 200,000 inhabitants, and the Hansa, the famous league of the Hanse towns, had numerous warehouses here. The first blow was given to its prosperity by the memorable siege under the prince of Par