ma, in 1585, and it was entirely ruined by the closing of its harbor after the peace of Westphalia. Joseph II attempted in vain to open the Scheldt. This was not done till after the conquest of the Austrian Netherlands by the French. The Scheldt was then declared free, and commerce would soon have revived, had not Napoleon made the place a military depot. In 1814, it was besieged by the English and Saxons under Graham, and defended by Carnot, who did not surrender it till the 5th of May, after the armistice with Monsieur had been concluded. Carnot's conduct was such, that he gained the admiration of all soldiers and military connoisseurs, and the love of the people of A., though they hated the French, and suffered much from the siege. Van Dyk, both the Teniers, Seyher, Crayer, Floris and Brili were born here.

ANUBIS; one of the most distinguished deities of the Egyptians. At first, he was worshipped under the form of a dog; afterwards, under that of a man with a dog's head; hence he was termed Cynocephalus. Tradition calls him a son of Osiris by Nephthys, whom he mistook for Isis. When Isis was convinced of this by the lotus wreath left with Nephthys by Osiris, she sought out the child, exposed by his mother for fear of Typhon, discovered him, with the help of a dog, educated him, and found in him a faithful guard and attendant. A. guards the gods as the dog guards men. So says Plutarch. According to Diodorus, Osiris was accompanied on his expeditions by A., and Macedon, another of his sons. A. carried a helmet covered with a dog's skin, and was therefore worshipped in the form of dog. According to the astronomical theology of the Egyptians, he was the 7th among the 8 gods of the first class, and designated the planet Mercury, as did also Piernies, the more common name of the planet. He was, consequently, lord of the ascendant for an hour of the day, and genius of wisdom. His original form was derived, probably, from the worship of the dog among the Egyptians, who regarded him as the god of hunting; then he became, according to Zoega, a guardian spirit in general, a protector of the gods. The Greeks recognised in him their Hermes, with whom, therefore, he became confounded. ANVILLE, Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d', first geographer of the king, pensionnaire of the academy of inscriptions and fine arts, &c., was born at Paris, in 1697. map, which chance put into his hands,

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awakened his love for geography, at the age of 12. He began to sketch regions mentioned in the Roman historians, and directed all his studies to geography. He read the ancients only to ascertain the position of cities, and to fix the limits of the remote kingdoms, of which we find traces in history. Thus he early acquired an extensive knowledge of geography, became acquainted with the learned, and, at the age of 22, received the office of geographer to the king. He now began to examine and set in order the mass of his knowledge, and acquired a nice tact, resembling instinct, which was the result of ingenious and careful comparison. Almost every where, his accuracy was rewarded by the discovery of truth. The highest estimation is due to him as a critic, and most of his opinions and conjectures have been verified by later inquiries on the spot. He has published 211 maps and plans, and 78 treatises. His atlas of ancient Egypt is the most deserving His Orbis Veteribus notus, and his Orbis Romanus, ought to be in the hands of all who read ancient history. So, also, his maps of Gaul, Italy and Greece. His maps of the same countries for the middle ages are of equal value. His maps of modern times are as good as could be formed of the materials in his possession. He was modest and unassuming, although too irritable when censured. The natural delicacy of his constitution did not hinder him from laboring 15 hours daily. Two years before his death, his mental powers sunk beneath the infirmities of age. He died in 1782. His valuable collection of maps was purchased by the government in 1779.

AONIAN MOUNT; Parnassus (q. v.); the residence of the Muses. The name Aonia was sometimes given to a part of Boeotia.Aonides; one of the niany names given to the Muses.—Aõnes (ãoves) were a chain of mountains, of which Helicon was one.

AORTA; the great artery, which rises immediately out of the left ventricle of the heart. It is divided into two grand trunks, distinguished by the epithets ascending and descending. (See Artery.)

APANAGE; an allowance which the younger princes of a reigning house (in which the right of primogeniture prevails, as is now generally the case) receive from the revenues of the country, that they may be enabled to live in a manner becoming their rank. It consists mostly in money, with the use of a princely castle and hunting-grounds, attended, frequently, with the right of jurisdiction over

these domains. When it is once fixed, it passes to the descendants of the apanaged princes, sprung from a lawful marriage, of a suitable rank, and, in their default, commonly falls into the hands of the reigning sovereign. Sometimes it is added to the possessions of the surviving apanaged princes. A tract of land with the right of ruling it, set aside for an apanage, is called paragium.

APE. This designation, often indis criminately applied to the members of the monkey tribe, was first properly restricted by Ray, the precursor of Linnæus, to those quadrumanous animals which, in structure, most closely approximate to the human configuration. In speaking of apes as distinguished from monkeys, we have reference to those genera of the great family quadrumana, which have neither tails nor cheek-pouches, attain nearly to human height, and present a facial angle, varying from 65° to 30°. The apes at present known are classed differently by different naturalists: Cuvier considers them all as species of one genus; Desmarest, whose arrangement, in this instance, we prefer, places them under the three genera, troglodytes, pithecus and pongo, the 2d of which he divides into two sub-genera, orangs proper, having no gluteal callosities, and gibbons, or long-armed apes, having calLosities. The species are, troglodytes niger, the chimpanzee or orang-otang, which is a native of Africa, especially of the coasts of Angola and Congo; pithe cus satyrus, the red orang, found in the most eastern parts of Southern Asia, particularly in Cochin China, Borneo and Malacca; pithecus lar, the great gibbon, a native of the Molucca islands, Coromandel, &c.; pithecus leuciscus, the wou-wou (so called on account of its cry), found in the same countries; pithecus syndactylus or siamang, and the pithecus agilis or active gibbon, both from Suma

tra.

As to the pongo, Cuvier has given excellent reasons for believing it to be nothing but the first-mentioned species in a state of maturity.-Like all the fourhanded animals, the apes are destined to live among the branches of trees, and are especially adapted, from their size and strength, to occupy large forests. All of them have the power of assuming a nearly erect position, though on the ground this is by no means convenient, as they stand upon the outer edges, being unable to apply the palms of the posterior hands fairly against the soil, and require a staff, or other support, to maintain this attitude,

except when they have been taught to stand erect by man.-They generally live in troops, and some of the species are said to construct a sort of hut of leaves. as a defence against the weather. They defend themselves with clubs, and employ these weapons with considerable effect, even against the human race. They are frugivorous in a state of nature, but, from the resemblance of their teeth to those of the human species, it is very evident that their diet may be almost as various as that of man. Some of them, the gibbons, are very remarkable, from the exceeding length of their superior extremities, the arm being so long that the hands hang near the ground when the animal is in the erect position. This singular conformation serves to adapt these creatures to their situations, in a manner which would scarcely be imagined, without having been witnessed. They spend their days chiefly upon the tops and branches of lofty trees, canes and bamboos, and, in passing from one to the other, are forced to make great leaps. The advantage of their vast length of limb is then rendered evident, as the gibbons would be unable to cling with their hinder hands to a long, flexile branch, swayed in various directions by the breeze, were it not that they can maintain their position by balancing themselves with their long arms. On the loftiest branches of the gigantic eastern forest trees, troops of these animals are seen sitting balanced in perfect security, and some of the species at sunrise and sunset scream forth discord

ant cries from such positions. If any circumstances occur to disturb these orisons, the apes disappear with amazing celerity into the depths of the forest, springing from tree to tree, swinging themselves to great distances by their long arms, and catching as readily at the next object with the posterior hands. The orangs of Borneo attain to the greatest size, growing to be five or six feet high; and travellers speak of apes of a stili larger size. They are represented, with justice, as terrible animals, and are endowed with unexampled strength of limb, one adult ape being more than a matchi for several unarmed men. They cause much terror to the natives residing near their haunts, and commit great ravages among the plantations of fruit, &c.-The orang most frequently exhibited and closely observed in captivity is the chimpanzee, jocko or wild man of the woods, commonly called orang-otang (S. troglodytes, L.) This species is an inhabitant

of Africa, and especially of the coasts of Congo and Angola. In the proportions of its members, and form of the head, it most closely resembles the human kind. It is a very amusing, though, at the same time, an unproductive employment, to read the monstrous exaggerations and ridiculous fables, which have been written of this animal by various learned authors. As they are always obtained when very young, they are trained to the performance of actions, which their exhibitors afterwards are careful to say have been acquired by voluntary imitation. It is, however, only after long and painful discipline that this education is effected; and, this once terminated, they advance no farther. They never exhibit as much sagacity as is shown by a good dog, nor are they capable of an equal degree of improvement. As they advance in life, they become untractable and savage, and, if Cuvier's opinion be confirmed, that the pongo of Africa is this orang-otang in a state of maturity, they become, with age, the most terrible and indomitable of their whole race. Lascivious, filthy, gluttonous and ferocious, they offer to man a perfect picture of what he would be, were he, like them, destitute of the divine faculty of reason, which controls the brute impulses of his organization. In their native haunts, these animals manifest differences sufficiently striking, in their habits and modes of life, to render them interesting objects of contemplation. Some of the species are remarkable for great activity; others are sluggish, indolent and inert. The females manifest an ardent attachment to their offspring, and make vigorous efforts to save them from injury. All show various degrees of that restless mobility, which indicates how much they are under the exclusive influence of sensation, without appearing to form conclusions from their repeated experience. An ape, in captivity, on seeing his image in a mirror, will look behind it to discover the animal reflected; and will as eagerly perform this action after the thousandth repetition as the first.-Our limits will not permit us to enter more particularly into this subject; but the curious reader will find in the works of F. Cuvier details sufficiently ample to satisfy the most inquisitive spirit.

A-PEAK (a pique, Fr.); perpendicular to the anchor. A ship is said to be in this situation, when the cable is drawn so tight into the bow as to bring her directly over the anchor, so that the cable bears right down from the ship's stem.

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APELLES, the most famous of the ancient portrait-painters, was the son of Pythias; probably born at Colophon. At Ephesus, he received the rights of citizenship, and therefore is called, sometimes, the Ephesian. Ephorus of Ephesus was his first teacher, but, attracted by the renown of the Sicyonian school, which distinguished itself by exact study, he became the disciple of Pamphilus, in Sicyon, though already himself an artist of reputation. Here he executed, with some other pupils of the same master, different paintings, which, for a long time, enjoyed great fame. In the time of Philip, A. went to Macedonia, and there, probably, the friendship and familiar intercourse between him and the king were established, which have given origin to so many anecdotes. But many of these may relate to a meeting with Alexander in Ephesus, where A. had gone, after a short stay at Rhodes, Cos and Alexandria. While staying at Rhodes, being in the study of Protogenes, during the absence of the latter, he drew a sketch, in which Protogenes, on his return, recognised the masterly stroke of A., and undertook to excel him. A. returned, and drew a third sketch, superior to both, so that the Rhodian painter declared himself conquered. The table containing the figures was afterwards brought to Rome, and ornamented the palace of the Cæsars, till destroyed in a conflagration. The most celebrated painting of this artist-Alexander holding the lightning, from which the chief light of the picture proceeds stood in the temple of Ephesus. By a happy application of perspective and chiaro-oscuro, the hand with the lightning seemed to project from the picture.-The talent and renown of A. were at their height in the 112th Olympiad. Yet, after the death of Alexander, he several times painted king Antiochus. This must have happened in the 118th Olympiad. Death seems to have surprised the artist in Cos, where an unfinished Venus was shown as his work, which nobody dared to complete. But the story that A., at the court of Ptolemy, at Alexandria, was accused, by the painter Antiphilus, of being engaged in a conspiracy, and that, his innocence being proved, he took revenge on the king and his rival, by a picture of Calumny, must refer to another artist of the same name. Tölken, professor at the university of Berlin, in his lecture, Apelles and Antiphilus, in vol. iii. of Amalthea, has proved that this Apelles lived between the

Olympiads 139 and 144, consequently 100 years later than the contemporary of Alexander. The greatest merit of A. was inimitable grace; his works were full of life, grace and poetry, and his art, therefore, was justly called ars Apellea.-According to Pliny, A. generally painted with four colors only, which he made to harmonize by means of the varnish, which he himself had invented.

APENNINES, or APPENNINES; a chain of mountains beginning near the Maritime Alps, not far from Genoa, there forming the pass of Bocchetta, extending through all Italy to the shores of Otranto and the straits of Sicily, and dividing it into two nearly equal parts, eastern and western. The Apennines are covered to the top with trees, particularly chestnut-trees, the fruit of which, in some countries, is the principal food of the inhabitants. Lower than the Alps, the Apennines present only a few elevated summits; e. g., the Gran Sasso, at Aquila, in the province of Abruzzo, 8255 feet high, and the Velino, 7872 feet high. The Apennines are covered with snow in winter, which sometimes melts late, and, congealing, forms ice, indispensable in a warm climate like Italy. In the Apennines are some large valleys, a few lakes and rivers, and many marshes at the foot of the hills. The internal construction of the chain shows great uniformity, the prevailing mineral, a thick, white limestone, being found in the same position in many places. The northern part deviates from this formation where it unites with the Alps, as well as the extreme south: both exhibit a great variety of elder formations. The lower elevations between the plain and the central chain display considerable diversity of construction. Primitive formations are wanting entirely in the next range of heights. In the highest of all, they are not abundant. Yet in the southern part, granite, gneiss and mica-slate are considerably diffused. The transition rocks, however, are widely spread, and abundant in various parts of the chain; e. g., gray wacke, clay-slate, limestone (e. g., the Carrara marble) and gabbro. Very widely diffused, also, is the compact floetz limestone, known under the name of Apennine limestone, which probably belongs to the limestone formation of the Jura. These mountains also are rich in recent formations, and in the volcanic tufa, which is an aggregate of volcanic substances transported and deposited by water. Proper volcanic and trapp formations, as they are called, are for

eign to the principal chain of the Apennines. These are confined to the southeastern part of Italy. Only Vesuvius, the extinct volcanoes of Nemi and Albano, and the lava stream of Borghetto, approach the borders of the chain.

APHELION (Greek, ano, from, and hos, the sun); that part of the orbit of the earth, or any other planet, in which it is at the point remotest from the sun. This also applies to a satellite; for the moon has her aphelion as well as the planets.

APHRODITE; the goddess of love among the Greeks; synonymous with Aphrogeneia, that is, born of the foam of the sea.Aphrodisia; a festival sacred to Venus, which was celebrated in various parts of Greece, but with the greatest solemnity in the island of Cyprus. (See Venus.)

APICIUS, M. Gabius; an epicure in the time of Augustus and Tiberius. He had the most delicate table in Rome, proved his genius for cookery by the invention of new dishes, and at last, when he had exhausted his vast fortune, he poisoned himself, that he might not die with hunger.-There were two other notorious epicures of the same name at Rome. The book of cookery, however, De Arte Coquinaria, published under the name of Apicius, was written by one Cælius, who assumed the proverbial nickname Apicius. The latest edition was by Bernhold, Anspach, 1806.

APIS; a bull, to which divine honors were paid by the Egyptians, chiefly at Memphis. According to the belief of the people, a cow became pregnant of him by a beam of light from heaven, coming particularly from the moon. It was necessary that he should be black, with a triangle of white on the forehead, a white spot, in the form of a crescent, on the right side, and a sort of knot, like a beetle, under his tongue. When a bull of this description was found, he was fed 4 months in a building facing the east. At the new moon, he was led to a splendid ship, with great solemnity, and conveyed to Heliopolis, where he was fed 40 days more by priests and women, who performed before him various indecent ceremonies. After this, no one was suffered to approach him. From Heliopolis the priests carried him to Memphis, where he had a temple, two chapels to dwell in, and a large court for exercise. He had the gift of prophecy, which he imparted to the children about him. The omen is good or bad, according as he goes into one chapel or the other. His birth-day was celebrated every year; when the Nile

began to rise, the festival continued for 7 days; a golden shell was thrown into the Nile, and the crocodile was always tame as long as the feast continued. Notwithstanding all this veneration, the bull was not suffered to live beyond 25 years; the reason of which is probably to be found in the astronomical theology of the Egyptians. He was buried in a fountain. Belzoni thought he had discovered a tomb of Apis in one of the stone sepulchres among the mountains of Upper Egypt, which enclose the valley of tombs, or the gates of the kings. In the same place, he found a colossal sarcophagus of alabaster, transparent and sonorous (now in the British museum), ornamented within and without by carved hieroglyphics and figures. In the interior of the apartment was found the body of a bull, embalmed with asphaltum. The death of Apis excited universal mourning, which continued till the priests had found a successor to him. As it was extremely difficult to find one with all the above distinctions, fraud was often practised by the priests.

APOCALYPSE (Greek; from anoкalunr, I reveal); the name of the last book of the New Testament, containing an account of the visions of St. John the evangelist. It is generally, at least, believed, that the Apocalypse was written by John, in his old age, at the end of the 1st century, in the isle of Patmos, whither he had been banished by the Roman emperor Domitian. Though the book was commonly regarded as genuine in the first centuries of Christianity, critics have not been wanting, who have doubted the evidence of its being the work of St. John. Its genuineness seems to have been first questioned in the 3d century, and, whether it be genuine or not, it still remains a question, whether it is the work of divine inspiration. However this may be, so much is certain, that the Apocalypse, on account of its metaphorical language, has been explained differently by almost every writer who has ventured to interpret it; and, for the same reason, it is one of those parts of the Bible which has furnished all sorts of sects and fanatics with quotations to support their creeds or pretensions. Even at the present time, people who have no clear and simple views of religion, but make it a mere matter of feeling and passion, refer more to this mysterious book, and to some parts of the Old Testament, than to the Gospels, and the other comparatively intelligible portions of the Scriptures. In the meta

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phors and symbolical expressions with which the Apocalypse abounds, the author seems to have had in view the then existing state of the church of Christ, and its future prospects. He speaks of his vision as of a matter of fact, with a confidence resembling that of Dante; but though the language is often bold and poetical, yet it is evident that the mind of the author had been formed among Jews, whose history shows them to have been always deficient in sensibility for the beautiful. The Apocalypse contains 22 chapters, which may be divided into two principal parts. The first, after the title of the book (ch. i. 1-3.), comprises "the things which are," that is, the then present state of the Christian church, including the epistolary instructions and admonitions to the angels or bishops of the 7 churches of Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis and Laodicea, situated in Asia Minor. The second part comprehends a prediction of "the things which shall be hereafter," referring either to the future state of the church through succeeding ages, from the time when the apostle beheld the apocalyptic visions, to the grand consummation of all things, or the state of the souls of men after the great resurrection of the dead. The millennium, which is spoken of in the Apocalypse, has, at different times, seduced people into the strangest expectations respecting the end of the world, particularly in the earlier times of Christianity; nay, the expectation of a speedy destruction of the world appears to have been an idea of the apostles themselves, based on a misinterpretation of the assurance of Christ, that he would soon return, connected with the idea, that the only object of his return must be to judge the living and the dead.

APOCRYPHAL (Greek; concealed); an epithet generally applied to certain books not admitted into the canon of the Old Testament; being either spurious, or not acknowledged as of divine origin. They are opposed to the canonical writings, i. e. those which are considered as affording rules of faith and conduct, because a divine origin is attributed to them. Besides the apocryphal books of the Old Testament, which usually stand after the canonical books in our editions, there are numerous spurious books, composed in the early days of Christianity, and published under the names of Jesus Christ and his apostles, their companions, &c. These bear the names of Acts, Epistles, Revelations, &c. They are entirely destitute of