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evidence to justify their admission into the sacred canon, and, on this account, are omitted entirely. They may be found in the Cod. Apocryph. by Fabricius, (Hamburg, 1719, 2 vols.) There are also several books of the New Testament, in the common editions, which, though generally regarded as canonical, are by some deemed apocryphal; e. g., the Revelation of St. John. (See Apocalypse.)

APOGEE (Greek; from ano, from, and yñ, the earth); ; that point in the orbit of the sun, or of a planet, which is at the greatest distance possible from the earth. The point of greatest nearness is called the perigee. The ancient astronomers, regarding the earth as the centre of the system, paid particular attention to these points, which the moderns, making the sun the centre, change for the aphelion and perihelion.

APOLLINARIANS, in ecclesiastical history; a sect which maintained the doctrine that the Logos (the Word of God) holds in Christ the place of the rational soul, and consequently that God was united in him with the human body and the sensitive soul. Apollinaris, the author of this opinion, was, from A. D. 362 till at least A. D. 382, bishop of Laodicea, in Syria, and a zealous opposer of the Arians. As a man and a scholar, he was highly esteemed, and was among the most popular authors of his time. According to the old historians of the church, when the emperor Julian forbade Christians the use of schools and the study of the Greek classics, Apollinaris, with his father, of the same name, a teacher of languages, and a presbyter, composed imitations of them, for the use of the Christians; for instance, heroic poems and tragedies, from the historical matter of the Old Testament, and dialogues in imitation of Plato's, from portions of the New. None of these works are now extant. His doctrine above-mentioned was first made known A. D. 371, and has been condemned as heretical, since A. D. 375, by various councils; among others, by the œcumenical council at Constantinople, A. D. 381. Apollinaris, however, formed a congregation of his adherents at Antioch, and made Vitalis their bishop. The Apollinarians, or Vitalians, as the followers of Apollinaris and Vitalis were called, soon spread their sentiments in Syria and the neighboring countries, established several societies, with their own bishops, and one even in Constantinople; but, after the death of their leader, between A. D. 382 and A. D. 392, they

separated into two parties-one, the Valentinians, who adhered to the doctrine of Apollinaris; the other, the Polemians, who assert that God and the body of Christ became one substance, and who, consequently, pay divine honors to the flesh; for which reason they were called Sarcolatra, Anthropolatra, and, because they admit the union of both natures in Christ, Synusians. Imperial edicts, A. D. 388 and 397, forbade them to hold religious assemblies; and, A. D. 428, they were wholly forbidden to have ecclesiastics, or to dwell in cities. This sect, never numerous, now disappeared, being partly included among the orthodox, and partly, afterwards, among the Monophysites. The doctrine of transubstantiation, and divine honor to the consecrated host, arises from the same view, which the Catholics deemed a crime in the Polemians.

APOLLO; son of Jupiter and Latona, who, being persecuted by the jealousy of Juno, after tedious wanderings and nine days' labor, was delivered of him and his twin sister, Artemis (Diana), on the island of Delos. (q. v.) A. appears in mythology as the god of poetry, music and prophecy, the patron of physicians, shepherds and the founders of cities. Skilled in the use of the bow, he slew the serpent Python on the fifth day after his birth; afterwards, with his sister Diana, he killed the children of Niobe, &c. He aided Jupiter in the war with the Titans and the giants. He destroyed the Cyclops, because they forged the thunderbolts with which Jupiter killed his son and favorite Esculapius. All of the male sex who were snatched from the world by a sudden and easy death, without previous sickness, were supposed to be smitten by the arrows of A. In the oldest poems, A. is exhibited as the god of song. In the festivals of the gods on Olympus, and those of men in which they took part, he plays and sings, while the Muses dance around him. He invented the harp or lyre. Marsyas, who ventured to contend with him on the flute, was conquered and flayed alive by the god. A. had another contest with Pan, in which the former played on the lyre, the latter on the pipe. Tmolus had already decided in favor of A., when Midas opposed the sentence, and was decorated with a pair of ass's ears for his insolence. That A. had the gift of prophecy, appears from the Iliad, where he is said to have bestowed it upon Calchas; and, in the Odyssey, mention is made of an oracular response, delivered

by him in Delphi. (q. v.) The oracle of A. at this place became very famous. He also revealed future events at Didyma, Claros, Tenedos and Patara. As medical advice was sought chiefly from oracles and soothsayers, A., in later times, came to be regarded as the god of physic. He was called the father of Esculapius, and poets feigned that he taught the Asclepiades the art of healing. Fables about the pastoral life of A. were not unknown in Homer's time, and Callimachus mentions him among the gods of shepherds. He is reported to have taken charge, for a long time, of the herds of Admetus, according to some authorities, voluntarily, according to others, compelled by Jupiter, on account of the murder of the Cyclops, or the serpent Python. As a builder of cities, the founding of Cyzicum, Cyrene and Naxos in Sicily, is ascribed to him. Homer relates that he built the walls of Troy together with Neptune, and afflicted the city afterwards with a pestilence, because Laomedon defrauded him of his pay. According to Pausanias, he assisted in building the walls of Megara; at which time he laid down his lute upon a stone, which ever after sent forth the music of the lute, as often as it was touched. According to the descriptions of poets, and the representations of sculptors, A. with Mars, Mercury and Bacchus, belongs to the beardless gods, in whom the dawnings of early manhood appear. His attributes are a bow, a quiver and plectrum, a serpent, a shepherd's crook, a griffin and a swan, a tripod, a laurel, an olive-tree, &c. Mythology relates many of his amours. (See Daphne.) In later times, he was confounded with Helios, among the Romans, Sol, the sun. Besides many temples, the island Delos, the city Delphi, mount Helicon, Leucadia and Parnassus were sacred to him.-The Apollinaria were games, celebrated in honor of him at Rome, which consisted of bull-fights, theatrical shows, and athletic exercises. He is often called Phobus, both by Greeks and Romans. Among the ancient statues of A. that have come down to us, the most remarkable, and, in the judgment of the learned and acute Winckelmann, the best and most perfect that art has produced, is the one called the Apollo Belvidere, from the pavilion of Belvidere in the Vatican, at Rome; also called the Pythian Apollo, because it is supposed that the artist has represented the god as the conqueror of the serpent Python. This statue was found in the ruins of Antium, at the end

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of the 15th century. On the peace of Tolentino, 1797, it was carried to Paris, with other treasures of art, whence it was restored to Rome, 1815.

APOLLODORUS; son of Asclepiades ; an Athenian grammarian, who flourished about 140 B. C.; studied philosophy under Panætius, and grammar, in the ancient sense of the word, under Aristarchus. He wrote a work on the gods, a commentary on Homer's catalogue of ships, and a history in verse. The mythological work entitled Bibliotheca, which bears his name, is probably a later extract from the larger work of A. It is very closely connected, however, with his history of the gods and heroes. The best editions are Heyne's, 2d edition, Göttingen, 1803, 2 vols., and Clavier's, Paris, 1805, 2 vols., with a French translation.-A. is also the name of a distinguished architect, who built the forum Trajani.

APOLLODORUS of Athens; a distinguished painter, about 408 B. C. (See Painting.)

APOLLONIKON; a large hand-organ, completed, in 1817, by Flight and Robson, organ-builders, which, however, may be played by the aid of keys, of which there are five rows arranged together in such manner that several musicians may perform at the same time. It is said to resemble the panharmonicon of Maelzel, and is calculated to produce a powerful effect, which is greatly enhanced by the variety of its stops. Prior to this, Roeller, an instrument-maker, born in HesseDarmstadt, had invented an instrument with two rows of keys, which might be played as a piano-forte and as a chamberorgan, combined at the same time with a musical automaton. It is described in the 2d vol. of the Leipsic Musical Journal. This instrument was called the apollonion.

APOLLONIUS of Perga, in Pamphylia; one of four authors (Euclid, Archimedes, Apollonius and Diophantes) whom we must regard as the founders of mathematical science. He lived about 240 B. C., and studied mathematics at Alexandria, among the scholars of Euclid. The most renowned of his numerous mathematical works is a book on Conic Sections (Oxford ed., 1710, fol.), a branch of the science to which he added much by new inventions and happy explanations.-A. of Rhodes, according to some authorities, was born at Alexandria, according to others, at Naucratis, about 230 B. C. As the jealousy of other learned men incessantly persecuted him in his own country,

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he retired to Rhodes, where he taught rhetoric with so much reputation, and obtained, by his writings, so much fame, that the Rhodians bestowed upon him the rights of citizenship. He returned to Alexandria to succeed Eratosthenes, as superintendent of the library of that city. Of his various works, we have only the Argonautica, a poem of moderate merit, though written with much care and labor. There are some passages, however, of great beauty, especially the episode on the love of Medea. The best editions are those of Brunck, Strasb. 1780, Leipsic, 1810, and that of 1813, with notes, &c.; the latter is not yet completed. (See Weichert On the Life and Poetry of Apollonius, Meissen, 1821.)—A. of Ty ana, in Cappadocia, was born in the beginning of the Christian æra, and became a follower of the Pythagorean philosophy. Euthydemus, the Phoenician, instructed him in grammar, rhetoric, and the various philosophical systems, and Euxenus of Heraclea taught him the Pythagorean philosophy. A. felt an irresistible desire to become a disciple of Pythagoras, according to the rigid rules of his sect. At Æge, there was a temple consecrated to Esculapius, where this god wrought miracles for the cure of the sick. To this temple A. repaired. In obedience to the precepts of Pythagoras, he abstained from all animal food, and lived only on fruits and herbs, drank no wine, dressed in a stuff prepared from plants, went barefooted, and suffered his hair to grow. The priests of the temple instructed him, and initiated him into their mysteries. It is said that Esculapius himself made him a witness of his cures; yet we have never been told that he had then attempted to perform miracles. He established a philosophical school, and enjoined silence upon himself for five years. During this time, he visited Pamphylia and Cilicia, and, afterwards, Antioch, Ephesus, and other cities. He then determined to pass beyond Babylon, to India, in order to become acquainted with the doctrines of the Bramins; and, as his scholars refused to follow him, he began his journey alone. A certain Damis, who met him, and regarded him as a deity, was his companion, and the narrator of his travels. At Babylon, he conversed with the Magi, and departed thence, with rich presents, on his way to Taxella, where Phraortes, king of India, had his seat of government, who gave him letters of introduction to the first among the Bramins. After 4 months, A. returned to Babylon,

from whence he proceeded to Ionia, and visited several cities. His fame every where preceded him, and the people came forth eagerly to meet him. He publicly reproached them for their indolence, and recommended community of goods, according to the doctrines of Pythagoras. He prophesied pestilence and earthquakes at Ephesus, which afterwards really came to pass. He spent one night in solitude at the grave of Achilles, and pretended to have had a conversation with the shade of that hero. At Lesbos, he conversed with the priests of Orpheus, who, at first, refused to initiate him into the sacred mysteries, regarding him as a sorcerer; but they received him some years later. At Athens, he recommended to the people sacrifices, prayers, and reformation of their morals. In every place which he visited, he maintained that he could prophesy and perform miracles. At last he came to Rome. Nero had, just before, banished all the magicians from the city. A. felt that he might be arrested in consequence of this edict: this reflection, however, did not prevent him from entering the city, with 8 of his companions; but his stay was short. He raised a young lady from the dead, says a historian, and was expelled from the city. He then visited Spain, returned through Italy to Greece, and thence to Egypt, where Vespasian made use of him for the support of his authority, and asked advice of him as of an oracle. Thence he journeyed to Ethiopia, and, after his return, was received as favorably by Titus, who asked his advice in all the affairs of government. When Domitian ascended the throne, A. was accused of having excited an insurrection in Egypt, in favor of Nerva. He readily submitted to a trial, and was acquitted. After this, he went once more to Greece, and passed over to Ephesus, where he opened a Pythagorean school, and died, almost 100 years old. Among the many miracles related of him, he is said to have announced the murder of Domitian, at the very moment when it happened. The heathens compare him to Christ, as a worker of miracles. Flavius Philostratus wrote a history of his life, very favorable to him, in 8 parts.

APOLOGETICS. A great number of apologies were written in defence of Christianity, in the early ages of the church, by Justin and others, but apologetics did not form a separate branch of theological science till the 18th century. We understand by them a philosophical exhibition of the arguments for the divine origin of

Christianity. They are to be carefully distinguished from polemical writings, which have for their object only to maintain the peculiarities of one religious sect or party against another. Hugo Grotius is one of the most eminent among the writers of these works. The Génie du Christianisme of Chateaubriand is a superficial declamation, with little merit but that of elegance. One of the principal apologetic works of modern times is in Danish-Kristelig Apologetik, eller Videnskabelig Udvikling af Grundene for Kristendommens Guddommelighed, ved P. E. Müller (Christian Apologetics, or philosophical Arguments for the divine Origin of Christianity), Copenhagen, 1810.

APOLOGUE. (See Fable.)

APOLOGY; defence of one who is accused. Judicial trials, among the ancients, were public, as they are in England and America, and consisted of speeches for and against a person or cause, and of the examination of witnesses. From judicial defences, which were often written down during the trial, and frequently composed accurately, and committed to paper by the speakers themselves, and afterwards made public, arose apologies. Of this nature are the apologies of Socrates, attributed to Plato and Xenophon. The former is a labored speech, in which Socrates is introduced speaking himself; the latter, rather a narration of the last hours and words of the wise man, with an explanation of the reasons why he preferred death, by which he seemed elevated above his accusers more than he would have been by a formal defence, which he scorned to make. Later rhetoricians wrote upon the use of apologies, and caused them to be composed by their scholars. Of this sort are the Apologies of Libanius (in 4 parts, the Reiske edition). Thus the name passed over to Christian authors, who, having before been orators or philosophers, borrowed a great part of their technical terms from the public courts of justice. They gave the name of apologies to the writings which were designed to defend Christianity against the attacks and accusations of its enemies, particularly the pagan philosophers, and to justify its professors before the emperors. Of this sort were those by Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, Tertullian, Tatian and others, which are lost, written by Quadratus, Aristides, Melito, Miltiades, Theophilus. To these might be added several works of Origen, Clement of Alexandria, Eusebius; and, among the Latins, those of Lactantius, Arnobius, Minucius Felix and

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Augustin, though they are published under another title. We must not expect in them strict philosophical connexion, nor the accurate interpretation of the sacred writings. It must be remembered, that most of the authors, part of whom had belonged to the profession of advocates, made use of all the arts of eloquence, that were permitted in public courts. After the secure establishment of Christianity, such apologies, in a great measure, ceased to appear, till, in later times, several writers have again attacked it, either directly or by indirect insinuation. In consequence, new apologies have been written, and, among many weak ones, some exhibit great power and eloquence. There are, also, apologies for the doctrines of particular sects; e. g., Robert Barclay's Apology for the People in Scorn called Quakers.

APONO, Peter, one of the most celebrated physicians of the 13th century, was born at Apono, or Abano, a village near Padua, in 1250. He studied at the university of Paris. His reputation as a physician became so great, that his rivals, envious of his celebrity, gave out that he was aided in his cures by evil spirits, and brought him under the notice of the inquisition, but he died before his process was finished. His body would have been consigned to the flames, but for the attachment of a female domestic, who had it privately disinterred, and secretly re-buried. His memory received honors more than equal to this attempted disgrace, for the duke of Urbino and the senate of Padua afterwards erected statues to him. Besides the work, Conciliator Differentiarum Philosophorum, et præcipue Medicorum, which he composed in Paris, and which was published at Padua, in 1490, and reprinted at Florence and at Venice, this author wrote De Venenis eorumque Remediis, Marpurg, 1517, and Venice, 1550; De Medicina Omnimoda; Quæstiones de Febribus; and various other works.

APOPHTHEGM (from the Greek ȧnóOcypa); a short, pithy sentence, or maxim, as, for example, the sayings of the seven wise men, so called. Julius Cæsar wrote a collection of them, but history has not handed them down to us. Several modern writers have written such apophthegms, in prose and verse. Some parts of the Bible are entirely composed of apophthegms.

APOPLEXY is the name applied to a disease which occurs very suddenly, as if a blow had been inflicted upon the head, and deprives the person of consciousness and voluntary motion, while

the respiration and action of the heart continue, although much oppressed. In a complete apoplexy, the person falls suddenly, is unable to move his limbs or to speak, gives no proof of seeing, hearing or feeling, and the breathing is stertorous or snoring, like that of a person in deep sleep. In a case of less violence, the symptoms are more moderate. Consciousness sometimes remains in part; some power of motion is retained, upon one side, or in some parts, at least; the speech is not entirely lost, but is only an unintelligible muttering of incoherent words. The immediate cause of this disease is some affection or injury of the brain, or of some portion of it; and it is most commonly produced by a fulness of blood in the head, either remaining in the blood-vessels, or poured out, in or upon the brain, from their rupture in some part, and in sufficient quantity to exert considerable pressure upon that organ. As the state of the whole body depends much upon the sound condition of the brain and nerves, it is evident that such an unnatural state of these organs cannot continue long without danger to life. The termination and effects of the disease vary with the violence of the attack; and it is either fatal in a few hours, or after a few days, during which a degree of fever is often observed, or the patient recovers, entirely or with a weakness or lameness of one or more limbs. The immediate cause of the symptoms first occurring, and of those remotely subsequent, is not known with absolute certainty; but from the examination of the bodies of those who have died with this disease, or in whom death has been produced by mechanical injuries to the head, which have been attended by similar appearances; and from the entire similarity of the symptoms in persons whose brains are injured by the pressure of bones, or blood, or in whom the brain exposed by some wound is purposely compressed, &c., to the symptoms presented by apoplexy; there is scarcely room to doubt, that genuine, complete apoplexy is produced by the pressure of blood (whether extravasated or not) upon the brain. This arises from the destruction of the equilibrium or balance of the circulation by various causes, by which an unnatural quantity of blood is forced into an otherwise healthy brain, or the brain and its vessels so weakened, that they are unable to sustain the pressure of the usual quantity of blood. Some of these causes operate directly upon the brain, as strong passions, hard study, exhaustion from fatigue, &c.;

others, indirectly, through the mediurn of the stomach, as when this disease is produced by indigestible food, &c. The disposition to it is sometimes hereditary and is most usually found to accompany a short, full person, a short neck, and a system disposed to a too copious sanguification. It sometimes, also, occurs in people who are exhausted by old age, excessive labor or anxiety, and, in these cases, the brain seems to be too weak to perform its common functions, and the efforts required of it produce an injurious or destructive flow of blood to it. It will be readily conjectured, from what has been said, that the cure of this disease is by no means easy, as the treatment must be accommodated to the various causes which may have produced it. It is at all times a disease of great danger, but by no means always fatal; and those affected by it sometimes recover as entirely as from any other complaint, although some lameness or defect of motion is apt to remain, either in the limbs, the organs of speech, the eyes or mouth, or some other part. A fatal result is to be anticipated, when the consciousness and feeling are entirely lost; when the eye is insensible to light, and the pupil does not contract; when the patient cannot swallow, the respiration grows more laborious, and froth or blood appears at the mouth or nose. But if, on the contrary, the remedies used appear to afford relief, and produce a gradual diminution of the symptoms above described, a favorable result may be expected. Although an attack of apoplexy comes on, for the most part, suddenly and unexpectedly, yet it is often preceded by appearances, which give warning of its approach. These are a high color of the whole face, giddiness or vertigo, sparks or flashes of light before the eyes, noises in the ears, bleeding at the nose, and pain in the head. The danger, in such cases, may most commonly be averted by bleeding and abstemious diet, to be continued till these symptoms are removed. When a person is unfortunately attacked by apoplexy, the first step should be to open the cravat and collar, so as to leave the neck free: if it be a short time after a meal, or if the last meal has been of an indigestible character, the stomach should be emptied by an emetic, or by tickling the throat with the finger, without waiting for a physician, and, at the same time, a vein or two should be opened, so as to produce a free flow of blood, which should be continued, if the face is flushed and red,