to his own principles, was obliged to call in the assistance of Antigonus, king of Macedon. This turned the tide of affairs for a while, but, on the death of Antigonus, similar difficulties occurring, his successor, Philip, was in the same manner called to the aid of the Achæans. At first, Philip highly esteemed A., but was gradually estranged from him, and it was thought that he had caused a slow poison to be administered to him, for A., spitting blood in the presence of a friend, exclaimed, "Behold the friendship of kings!" He died in his 57th year, 216 B. C., and was interred with the highest honors. A. was one of the most virtuous and nobleminded men that shed lustre on the declining days of Greece. Polybius speaks in high terms of Commentaries, written by A. on his own actions and the affairs of the Achæans, which, it is much to be regretted, have not reached posterity. The chief materials for his history are to be found in Polybius and Plutarch.

ARAUCANIANS. This is a South American nation, of 400,000 inhabitants, in the southern part of Chile. They occupy a territory containing 64,000 square miles, and stretching from 33° 44' to 39° 50′ of S. lat. They have maintained their independence against the Spaniards to the present time. Bounded on the N. by the river Bio-Bio, on the S. by the river Gallacallay, on the E. by the Andes, and W. by the Pacific ocean, they live under a free, though aristocratical form of government, agreeably to common laws and customs. They dwell in villages, and employ themselves in agriculture and raising cattle. The woollen dress of the men is a shirt and a dark-blue mantle; the women wear a mantle and a long petticoat. The freemen live in huts. Vegetables form their principal food. Polygamy prevails among them, yet the domestic affairs are managed by the women. Their language is allied to the Patagonian. One of the 4 toquis (high hereditary nobility) conducts the public affairs. If he does not, however, enjoy universal respect, the ulmenes, or hereditary nobility of an inferior class, displace him, and substitute one of their own number. Distinguished knowledge and boldness must be shown by the nobility, to excite respect. The general appoints his own lieutenant, who, in his turn, appoints another for himself. Thus every inferior rank is dependent upon the one above it, yet not on the supreme power. In establishing laws and determining in military operations, every A. has a voice. The executive power, however, is not

bound by expression of the popular opinion. Till 1551, the A. fought only on foot, and then, for the first time, they learned the value of cavalry. Now they have many horses, and, on their marches, each rider carries a foot-soldier behind him, so as to advance with more speed. In battles, the cavalry are posted on both wings. The lieutenant-general, vice-toqui, commands one of the wings. In the middle stand the infantry, armed with clubs or spears. They are, likewise, well skilled in the use of fire-arms. In their battles, a portion of the warriors usually remain behind as a corps-de-reserve. The A. advance to an attack with a hideous noise. In the revolutionary struggle of the South American states, the toqui of the A. resolved upon neutrality, which he honorably maintained.-Araucana; an epic poem of Ercilla. (See Ercilla.)

ARBELA, now Erbil; a small place in Eastern Assyria, renowned for a decisive battle fought by Alexander the Great against Darius, at Gaugamela, in its neighborhood, B. C. 331.

ARBITER; a name applied among the Romans, 1. to a judge, whom the prætor had commissioned to decide a controversy pending before him, according to the principles of equity (ex æquo et bono); 2. to a person to whom the contending parties had committed the decision of their dispute, without the interference of a magistrate, by an agreement partly with one another (compromissum), partly with him (receptum); finally, 3. one whom the contending parties had only consulted, with the design of his drawing up terms of settlement, without binding themselves to assent to them. To an arbiter, in the first signification, decisions were committed by the prætor only in affairs of trust and confidence (in negotiis bonæ fidei), not in cases of strict right (in negotiis stricti juris). In the latter cases, the prætor appointed a judge (judex pedaneus) who was to decide according to a strict rule (formula) which was given to him. In this threefold signification, the arbiters (diantai) among the Athenians are comprehended. From the arbiter comes the arbitratcr, i. e. one to whom the deciding judge proposes questions depending on scientific or technical knowledge, which affect the decision of the dispute. From the opinions of such a man, the parties may appeal to the opinion of a third (to a reductio ad arbitrium boni viri). But as soon as they have committed the decision to a third by an agreement (compromissum), and the commission (receptum) has been

received by him, they must submit to his decision. His sentence (arbitrium, or laudum) can only be assailed when something fraudulent, e. g., bribery, can be proved against him. In the opinion of many learned jurists, however, it may be called in question in case of a great though unintentional violation of justice (propter læsionem enormissimam). Justinian established a distinction between the decision to which the parties subscribe, or which they approve by a silence of 10 days, and that against which they have protested within 10 days. The former is called arbitrium homologatum; the latter, nonhomologatum. The latter, according to him, ought to have no legal force.

ARBITRATION. Parties may submit a dispute to arbitration either orally or in writing, and, in either case, the award, when properly made, will be binding on the parties. The submission is in the nature of a commission by both parties to the arbitrators to determine the subject in dispute. If either revokes this authority before the award is made, the award will not be binding upon the party so revoking. But if the submission were by bond or covenant, or in writing, and, in some cases, if it were merely oral, the other party will be entitled to damages against the party so revoking, for the breach of his agreement to submit the matter in dispute to arbitration. General agreements to submit disputes that may arise, such as those contained in policies of insurance, are not binding by the laws of the U. States nor by those of England. Similar agreements are, however, binding in Germany, and some other parts of the continent, where articles of copartnership frequently contain a clause to submit disputes between the partners to arbitration; and wills often contain a provision that disputes among the legatees and devisees shall be so settled. In submitting disputes under these stipulations, the parties sometimes take an oath to comply with the award, or they agree upon a penalty for not complying. Each is binding. One reason for not giving effect to such general agreements, in England and the U. States, is, that it substitutes other tribunals in the place of those established by the laws of the country, which may be done in case of a dispute that has actually arisen, but not by a general and prospective agreement. The laws of most countries, however, favor the settlement of disputes by arbitration. The parties may agree in court to refer their case to arbitration, and the judges will recognise

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the agreement. For the purpose of encouraging arbitrations, the laws of many if not all of the U. States provide the forms and proceedings in relation to them. The object of these statutes is to provide a way of making a binding submission, procuring a valid award, and securing its ready execution. Crimes cannot be made the subjects of adjustment and composition by arbitration, for the public is here one party; but the personal injuries and pecuniary damage resulting from crimes or breaches of the peace may be made subjects of reference. As to the persons who may agree upon a submission, any one may do so who is capable of making a disposition of his property, or a release of his right; but one under a natural or civil incapacity cannot, as a married woman or minor. The arbitrators chosen by the parties are often authorized to choose an umpire, in case they disagree; but in some of the general stipulations for reference in Germany, the umpire is agreed on beforehand by the parties. As an arbitrator is a judge who receives a commission from the contending parties, it must be left to them to decide on his qualifications, and the laws do not generally make any specific provisions on this subject. If, however, it appears that the arbitrator was interested, and his interest was unknown to one of the parties, or that he was bribed, or that any other strong objection lay against his acting as arbitrator, exception may be made to the award on that account. The provisions of various statutes for carrying awards into execution, and the exceptions that may be made to them on the ground of interest, circumvention, mistake or informality, are too numerous to be stated particularly.

ARBUTHNOT, John, an eminent physician and distinguished wit, was born in Scotland soon after the restoration, but in what year is uncertain. He received the degree of doctor of physic at the university of Aberdeen, and engaged in the business of teaching mathematics in London, where he soon distinguished himself by his writings and by his skill in the practice of his profession. In 1704, he was chosen fellow of the royal society, and soon after appointed physician extraordinary, and then physician in ordinary, to queen Anne. About this time he became intimate with Swift and Pope, and this brilliant triumvirate formed the plan of a satire on the abuses of human learning. But the completion of this design was interrupted by the death of the queen,

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and we have only an imperfect essay, under the title of Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus. The death of queen Anne made such an impression on doctor Arbuthnot, that, to divert his melancholy, he visited Paris, and, on his return, was deprived of his place at St. James's. He continued, however, the practice of his profession, and, in 1723, was chosen 2d censor of the royal college of physicians, and afterwards an elect of the same college. Being afflicted with an asthma, which, having increased with his years, was at last become incurable, he retired to Hampstead for relief; but, being sensible that his disease was mortal, he returned to London, where he died in 1735.-The principal works of doctor Arbuthnot are, an Examination of Doctor Woodward's Account of the Deluge, 1697, and an Essay on the Usefulness of Mathematical Learning, which were the foundation of his literary reputation; the Table of Ancient Coins, Weights and Measures, explained and exemplified, in several Dissertations, which appeared in 1727; the treatise of the Nature and Choice of Aliments, 1732; and that of the Effects of Air on Human Bodies, 1733. In these he displays his solid and extensive learning. His treatise on the Altercation of the Ancients, his History of John Bull, his contributions to Martinus Scriblerus, and other pieces usually published in Swift's works, are equally distinguished for ingenuity, wit and exquisite satire. His epitaph on Chartres is a masterly composition in its kind. The following sketch of his character, from doctor Johnson's life of Pope, is justified by the testimony of his contemporaries and of his works:-"A. was a man of great comprehension, skilful in his practice, versed in the sciences, acquainted with ancient literature, and able to animate his mass of knowledge by a bright and active imagination; a scholar, with great brilliance of wit; a wit, who, in the crowd of life, retained and discovered a noble ardor of religious zeal; a man estimable for his learning, amiable for his life, and venerable for his piety." His miscellaneous works have been published in 2 vols. 12mo., with a memoir of his life prefixed. -Another A., of the name of Alexander, was an active supporter of the reformed church of Scotland. He was born in 1538, and died in 1583.

ARC, Jeanne d'. (See Joan of Arc.) ARCADIA; the middle and highest part of the Peloponnesus; the Greek Switzerland; bounded on the north by Achaia

and Sicyon, on the east by Argolis, on the south by Messenia, and on the west by Elis. It is rich in rivers, springs and pastures, and is watered by the Eurotas and Alpheus. The principal mountains were called Cyllene, Erymanthus, Stymphalus, and Manalus. From its first inhabitants, the Pelasgi, the land derived the name Pelasgia. In later times, it was divided among the 50 sons of Lycaon, and received from his grandson, Areas, the name Arcadia. In the course of time, the small kingdoms made themselves free, and formed a confederacy. The principal were, Mantinea, where Epaminondas obtained a victory and a tomb (now the village of Mondi), Tegea (now Tripolizza), Orchomenus, Pheneus, Psophis and Megalopolis. The shepherds and hunters of the rugged mountain country remained for a long time in a savage state. By degrees, they acquired the rudiments of civilization, began to cultivate their fields, and to amuse themselves with dancing and music. At the same time, they always remained warlike, and fought, when they had no wars of their own, in the service of other states. Their chief deity was Pan; their chief business, breeding of cattle and agriculture. This occasioned the pastoral poets to select Arcadia for the theatre of their fables. Thus it has been made to appear as a paradise, although it was far from deserving this character.

ARCADIANS, Academy of the; a society of Italian poets in Rome, established in the latter half of the 17th century, for the improvement of taste and the cultivation of Italian poetry. The whole constitution of the society had as its object the imitation of the pastoral life of the Arcadians. Hence their meetings are held in gardens, and every member adopts the name of a Greek shepherd, by which he is called in the society. Under these names the poems of the members are usually published. The laws of the society are drawn up after the model of the 12 Roman tables: the most important are, that the society shall have no patron, and that no poems are to be read which are contrary to religion and good morals. The device of the society is the syrinx (the ancient shepherd's pipe), entwined with pines and laurels. Only poets (without distinction of sex, however) can be members of it. Formerly, the society enjoyed much respect, and it was an object of ambition to obtain admission to it; but this is no longer the case. In imitation of the chief society in

Rome, societies for the same purpose were instituted in several Italian cities. Crescimbeni (q. v.) has published collections of the poems of this association, and biographies of several of its members. In 1824, Leo XII, under the name of Leo Pistate Cecropio, was admitted a member.

ARCANUM; a secret; especially a secret remedy, or a medicine of which the ingredients and preparation are kept secret. Such medicines, on account of numerous abuses, have been made, in some countries, an object of medical police. In the time of alchemy, there were many celebrated arcana.

ARCE, Manuel José, was elected first president of the republic of Central America, and entered upon the duties of his office at the organization of the republican government in April 1825. The salary assigned him by congress was 10,000 dollars; and his term of office is fixed at four years by the constitution. (For the history of his administration, see Central America.)

ARCESILAUS; the founder of the second or middle academy; born at Pitane, in Eolis, in the first year of the 116th Olympiad, B. C. 316; was carefully educated; and sent to Athens to study rhetoric. but philosophy attracted him more. He enjoyed the instructions of the Peripatet ic Theophrastus, then of Polemon, and, after the death of Crates, stood at the head of the academy, but made important innovations in its doctrines. Plato and his successors had distinguished two kinds of objects-material, which act upon the senses, and those that are only comprehended by the mind. Our notions of the former, they say, compose opinion; of the latter, knowledge. Arcesilaus, who approached to scepticism, or rather went beyond it, denied that a man knows any thing-even the fact that he knows nothing. He rejected as false and delusive the testimony of the senses, and accordingly maintained, that the truly wise man can maintain nothing. In this way he was able to combat all opinions. As he was obliged, however, to reconcile these strange maxims with the necessities of life, imposed alike on every being, he said their strict application was admitted only in science, and that a man may even adhere to what is only probable in the present life. Moreover, he was kind to the distressed, and a friend to pleasure. A rival of Aristippus, he divided his time between Venus, Bacchus and the Muses, without ever filling a public office. He

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died, from intemperate indulgence in wine, 75 years old, in the 4th year of the 134th Olympiad.

ARCH, in building. (See Architecture.) ARCH (from the Greek prefix ¿px‹); a syllable which is placed before some words, in order to denote the highest degree of their kind, whether good or bad, e. g., archangel, archduke, archchancellor, archbishop, archspirit of evil, archfiend, archflatterer, archfelon, &c. Many of the highest officers in different empires have this syllable prefixed to their titles, and, in the German empire, the archoffices (erzämter), as they were called, were of high importance. They were established in France, by the same constitution which conferred the imperial dignity on Napoleon.

ARCHAISM; an antiquated word or phrase. In general, the use of archaisms is objectionable, but in certain kinds of writing, and particularly in poetry, they may even be an ornament, as they are often peculiarly forcible.

ARCHANGEL; the chief city in a Russian district of the same name, which contains 356,400 sq. miles, with 263,100 inhabitants, among whom are 7000 Samoyedes. It lies between 20 and 30 miles from the mouth of the Dwina, on the White sea; lon. 40° 43′ E.; lat. 64° 32′ N.; contains 1900 houses and 15,100 inhabitants. The monastery of Michael the archangel,founded there in 1584, gave the city its name. The English first discovered a passage thither through the Frozen ocean, A. D. 1553, and, until the building of Petersburg, A. was the only port from whence the productions of Russia were exported. When Petersburg became a place of export, and Riga also was used as a Russian port, the trade of A. sunk till 1762, when queen Elizabeth granted to it all the privileges of Petersburg. The trade on the Dwina has since increased more and more with the growing population of Russia; and A. has become the chief mart of all imports and exports for Siberia, being connected by canals with Moscow and Astrachan. In June or July, foreign vessels arrive, which sail again in the last of September or October. In these summer months, there is a perpetual market for fish, fish-oil, tallow, grain, various sorts of fur, skins, ship-timber, wax, iron, coarse linen, hogs' bristles, china and japaned wares, caviare, sturgeon, &c. More than 200 foreign vessels arrive annually; in 1823, 230 sailed. The trade is seriously obstructed by a sandbank, affording only 12 feet of wai r

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at the entrance of the harbor, which is in other respects good. The fortification of Novo-Dwiesk protects the entrance. There are now dock-yards here for ships of war, which are built by the Russian government in A. as cheap or cheaper than they can build them in any other place; also an excellent ware-house for foreign merchandise subject to a duty. In April, the ice breaks up at the mouth of the Dwina, on the banks of which, 65° N. lat., the vegetation of grain and fruit entirely ceases. Seventeen versts from the city is the anchoring place of ships, with three docks. A civil and military governor, and an archbishop, reside at A. The house of the admiralty and the barracks of the soldiers are situated on the island Solombol, formed by the river Cuschenida. In 1816, the value of imported goods subject to duties was 1,138,000 rubles, and of the exports, 8,600,000 rubles. The shortness of the nights, during the time the harbor is navigable, presents a natural obstacle to smuggling. The shortest day is 3 hours and 12 minutes long. Many expeditions, every year, for fishing and hunting, go from this place to Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla, by water in summer, and by sledges in winter, to the mouth of the Lena, and perhaps farther.

ARCHBISHOP (from the Greek; in Latin, archiepiscopus); a metropolitan prelate, having several suffragan bishops under him. In Catholic countries, the archiepiscopal chapters elect the archbishop, who is confirmed by the pope. The establishment of this dignity is to be traced up to the earliest times of Christianity, when the bishops and inferior clergy met in the capitals to deliberate on spiritual affairs, and the bishop of the city where the meeting was held presided. Certain honors were allowed him, the title of metropolitan particularly, on account of his residence. The synod of Antioch gave the archbishops, in the year 341, the superintendence over several dioceses, which were called their province, and a rank above the clergy of the same, who were obliged to ask their advice in some cases. By degrees, their privileges increased; but of these the pope has retained many since the 9th century, so that only the following were left to the archbishops :-jurisdiction, in the first instance, over their suffragan bishops, in cases not of a criminal nature, and appellate jurisdiction from the bishops' courts; the right of convoking a provincial synod, which they were required to do at least once in every three years,

and the right of presiding in the same; the care of enforcing the observance of the rules of the church, of remedying abuses, of distributing indulgences; the right of devolution (q. v.), of having the cross carried before them in all parts of the province (if the pope himself or a legatus a latere is not present), and of wearing the archiepiscopal pallium (q. v.) In England are two (Protestant) archbishops-those of Canterbury and York; the former styled primate of all England, the latter, primate of England; but with regard to the exact distinctions between these appellations, there is no little obscurity in the books of such as treat upon this subject. In ancient times, the primacy of the archbishop of Canterbury extended to Ireland, as well as England. Hence he was styled a patriarch, had the titles of orbis Britannici pontifex, and of papa alterius orbis. He is the first peer of the realm, having precedency before all dukes not of royal birth. He crowns the sovereign, whether king or queen, and when he is invested with his archbishopric, he is said to be enthroned. The first prelates in England are his officers. He is addressed by the titles of your grace, and most reverend father in God, and writes himself, by divine providence, while the bishop only writes by divine permission. His jurisdiction extends over 21 dioceses. The first archbishop of Canterbury was Austin, appointed A. D. 598, by Ethelbert, when he was converted to Christianity. Next in dignity is the archbishop of York. He takes place of all dukes not of the blood royal, and all the great officers of the crown, except the lord high chancellor of England. He crowns the queen consort. The first archbishop of York was Paulinus, appointed in 622. The income of these two highest prelates of England has often been misrepresented, one party stating it too high, the other too low. It is certainly very great, though the amount cannot be ascertained. (For the immense salaries of some of the English clergy, and the scanty incomes of the larger portion, see the article Clergy.) Scotland had two archbishops-those of St. Andrew's and Glasgow; now she has none. In Ireland, there are four-those of Dublin, Armagh, Tuam and Cashel. In the U. States, there is an archbishop of the Roman Catholic church, whose see is at Baltimore, and whose spiritual jurisdiction extends over all the U. States. There is, as yet, no archbishop of the Protestant Episcopal church, though there are seve