changes in the laws of Solon. He divided the people into 10 classes, and made the senate consist of 500 persons. A. was already highly cultivated; the vintage and harvest, like all the labors of this gay people, were celebrated with dance and song, with feasts and sacrifices. The wool of A. was famous, on account of the care bestowed upon the sheep, and the skill with which it was dyed of the most beautiful colors. Mount Hymettus (q. v.) yielded the finest honey, and mount Laurium contained rich silver mines, the products of which were appropriated to the support of the fleet. Then came the splendid era of the Persian war, which elevated Athens to the summit of fame. Miltiades at Marathon, and Themistocles at Salamis, conquered the Persians by land and by sea. The freedom of Greece escaped the dangers which had threatened it; the rights of the people were enlarged; the archons and other magistrates were chosen from all classes without distinction. The period from the Persian war to the time of Alexander (B. C. 500 to 336) was most remarkable for the developement of the Athenian constitution. According to Böckh's excellent work, Die Staatshaushaltung der Athener (2 vols., Berlin, 1817), A. contained, together with the islands of Salamis and Helena, a territory of 847 square miles, with 500,000 inhabitants, 365,000 of whom were slaves. Böckh estimates the inhabitants of the city and harbors at 180,000; those of the mines at 20,000. Cimon and Pericles (B. C. 444) introduced the highest elegance into Athens, but the latter laid the foundation for the future corruption of manners, and for the gradual overthrow of the state. Under him began the Peloponnesian war, which ended with the conquest of Athens by the Lacedemonians. The vanquished were obliged to receive the most mortifying conditions from the victors. Thirty supreme magistrates were placed over the city, who, under the protection of the Lacedemonian garrison, were arbitrary and cruel. After eight dreadful months, Thrasybulus overthrew this tyranny, and restored freedom and the old constitution, with some improvements.-Athens began to elevate herself again among the states of Greece, and was fortunate in her alliance with Thebes against Sparta. But this new period of power did not long continue. A more dangerous enemy rose in the North-Philip of Macedon. The Athenians had opposed him in the Phocian war, and Philip, therefore, took pos

session of some of their colonies. The Greeks took up arms, but the battle of Cheronæa (B. C. 338) was the grave of their liberty. Athens, together with the other states of Greece, was now dependent on the Macedonians. In vain, after the death of Alexander, did the Athenians attempt to regain their freedom: they were obliged to receive a Macedonian garrison in the harbor of Munychia. Antipater ordered that only those citizens who possessed an estate of more than 2000 drachmæ should take part in the administration of the government. Soon after, Athens was taken by Cassander, because it had joined his enemies, contrary to the advice of Phocion. Cassander restored the oligarchy, and named Demetrius Phalereus governor of the state, who quietly enjoyed the office for 10 years. But the Athenians, who hated him because he was not chosen by them, called Demetrius Poliorcetes to their assistance, who took the city, restored the ancient constitution, and was loaded with the most extravagant marks of honor by the Athenians; yet, when he went to war, he lost the affection of the unstable multitude, who, on his return, excluded him from the city. But he conquered Athens, forgave the citizens, and permitted them to enjoy their liberty, merely placing a garrison in the havens of Munychia and the Piræus. This garrison was afterwards driven out by the Athenians, who, for a long time, maintained their freedom. Antigonus Gonatas again conquered them, and in this situation they remained until they separated themselves from the Macedonians, and joined the Achæan league. They afterwards united with the Romans against Philip, and their new allies confirmed their freedom. When they suffered themselves to be misled to support Mithridates against the Romans, they drew upon themselves the vengeance of Rome. Sylla captured the city, and left it only an appearance of liberty, which it retained until the time of Vespasian. This emperor formally changed it into a Roman province. After the division of the Roman empire, A. belonged to the empire of the East. A. D. 396, it was conquered by Alaric the Goth, and the country devastated.-The latest and most beautiful engravings of the antiquities of this country are, "The Unedited Antiquities of Attica, comprising the Architectural Remains of Eleusis, Rhamnus, Sunium and Thoricus, by the Society of Dilettanti;" London, pub. by Longman and Murray, 1817, folio. (See Athens.)

ATTICUS, Herodes. (See Herodes Atticus.)

ATTICUS, Titus Pomponius; a Roman, belonging to the rank of equites, who, in the most agitated times, preserved the esteem of all parties. The Pomponian family, from which he originated, was one of the most distinguished of the equites, and derived its origin from Numa Pompilius. He lived in the latter period of the republic, and acquired great celebrity from the splendor of his private character. He inherited from his father and from his uncle, Q. Cæcilius, great wealth. When he attained maturity, the republic was disturbed by the factions of Cinna and Sylla. His brother Sulpicius, the tribune of the people, being killed, he thought himself not safe in Rome, for which reason he removed, with his fortune, to Athens, where he devoted himself to science. His benefits to the city were so great, that he gained the affections of the people in the highest degree. He acquired so thorough a knowledge of Greek, that he could not be distinguished from a native Athenian. When Rome had recovered some degree of quiet, he returned, and inherited from his uncle 10 millions of sesterces. His sister married the brother of Cicero. With this orator, as well as with Hortensius, he lived on terms of intimate friendship. It was his principle never to mix in politics, and he lived undisturbed amid all the successive factions which reigned in Rome. Cæsar treated him with the greatest regard, though he was known as a friend of Pompey. After the death of Cæsar, he lived in friendship with Brutus, without, however, offending Antony. When Brutus was obliged to flee from Italy, he sent him a million of sesterces, and likewise supported Fulvia, the wife of Antony, after the disastrous battles of Mutina, and therefore was spared when fortune again smiled on Antony, and the friends of Brutus generally were the victims of his vengeance. The daughter of A. was married to M. Vespasianus Agrippa, and Augustus became his friend. He often received letters both from Augustus and from Antony, when he was absent from Rome. He reached the age of 77 years without sickness. At this time, he became afflicted with a disorder which he felt to be incurable. He therefore ended his life by voluntary starvation, and was buried near the Appian way, in the grave of his uncle.

ATTILA (in German, Etzel); the son of Mandras, a Hun of royal descent, who followed his uncle Roas in 434, and

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shared the supreme authority with his brother Bleda. These two leaders of the barbarians, who had settled in Scythia and Hungary, threatened the Eastern empire, and twice compelled the weak Theodosius II to purchase an inglorious peace. Their power was feared by all the nations of Europe and Asia. The Huns themselves esteemed A. their bravest warrior and most skilful general. Their regard for his person soon amounted to superstitious reverence. He gave out that he had found the sword of their tutelar god, and, proud of this weapon, which added dignity to his power, he designed to extend his rule over the whole earth. He caused his brother Bleda to be murdered (444), and, when he announced that it was done by the command of God, this murder was celebrated like a victory. Being now sole master of a warlike people, his unbounded ambition made him the terror of all nations; and he became, as he called himself, the scourge which God had chosen to chastise the human race. In a short time, he extended his dominion over all the people of Germany and Scythia, and the Eastern and Western emperors paid him tribute. The Vandals, the Ostrogoths, the Gepidæ, and a part of the Franks, united under his banners. Some historians assure us, that his army amounted to 700,000 men.When he had heard a rumor of the riches and power of Persia, he directed his march thither. He was defeated on the plains of Armenia, and drew back to satisfy his desire of plunder in the dominions of the emperor of the East. He easily found a pretext for war, for all states which promised him a rich booty were his natural enemies, and all princes whom he hoped to conquer had broken alliances. He therefore went over to Illyria, and laid waste all the countries from the Black to the Adriatic sea. The emperor Theodosius collected an army to oppose his progress; but, in three bloody battles, fortune declared herself for the barbarians. Constantinople was indebted to the strength of its walls, and to the ignorance of the enemy in the art of besieging, for its preservation. Thrace, Macedonia and Greece, all submitted to the savage robber, who destroyed 70 flourishing cities. Theodosius was at the mercy of the victor, and was obliged to purchase a peace. One of the servants of Attila, Edekon, was tempted by a eunuch, Chrysaphius, to undertake the assassination of his master on his return to the Danube ; but, at the moment of execution, his cour

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failed him; he fell at the feet of his master, and acknowledged his criminal design. Constantinople trembled at the idea of Attila's revenge; but he was contented with reproaching Theodosius for his perfidy, and requiring the head of Chrysaphius. The emperor engaged to pay a new tribute.-A. now directed his views to Gaul. With an immense army, he passed the Rhine, the Moselle and the Seine, came to the Loire, and sat down under the walls of Orleans. The inhabitants of this city, encouraged by their bishop, Agnan (Anianus), repelled the first attack of the barbarians, and the united forces of the Romans, under their general, Aëtius, and of the Visigoths, under their king, Theodoric, compelled A. to raise the siege. He retreated to Champagne, and waited for the enemy in the plains of Chalons. The two armies soon approached each other. A., anxious for the event of the battle, consulted the soothsayers, and they assured him of a defeat. He concealed his alarm, rode through the ranks of his warriors, reminded them of their deeds, spoke of his joy at the prospect of a battle, and at the thought that their valor was to be rewarded. Inflamed by this speech, and by the presence of their leader, the Huns were impatient for battle. Both armies fought bravely. At length, the ranks of the Romans and Goths were broken through, and A. was already sure of the victory, when the Gothic prince Thoris mond, the son of Theodoric, poured down from the neighboring height upon the Huns. He threw them into disorder, spread death through their ranks, and A., pressed on all sides, escaped with difficulty to his camp. This was, perhaps, the bloodiest battle which has ever been fought in Europe; for, according to contemporary historians, 106,000 dead bodies covered the field of battle. A. caused all his camp equipage and treasures to be brought together into a heap, in order to burn himself with them, in case he should be reduced to extremities. But the enemy were contented with collecting their forces during the night, and, having paid the last honors to the dead body of king Theodoric (Dietrich), which they discovered with difficulty, they saluted his son, Thorismond, king upon the field of battle. Thus A. escaped destruction. But the Franks pursued him, hanging on his rear, till he had passed the Rhine.-Rather irritated than discouraged, he sought a new opportunity to seize upon Italy, and demanded Honoria,

the sister of Valentinian III, in marriage. This princess had been separated from the court, and confined in a monastery, on account of an intrigue with Eugenius, her chamberlain. She offered her hand to A.; he accepted the proffered match, and demanded, as a dowry, half the kingdom. When this demand was refused, he attacked Italy with dreadful fury. The emperor trembled, and his ambassadors supplicated in vain. A. conquered and destroyed Aquileia, Padua, Vicenza, Verona, Bergamo, and laid waste the plains of Lombardy. The inhabitants fled to the Alps, to the Apennines, and to the small islands in the shallows (lagoons) of the Adriatic sea, where they built Venice. The emperor had no army to oppose him; the Roman people and senate had recourse to tears and supplications. Pope Leo I went with the Roman ambassadors to the enemy's camp, and succeeded in obtaining a peace. A. went back to Hungary. The Romans looked upon their preservation as a miracle, and the old chronicles relate that the threats of St. Peter and St. Paul had terrified A.—a legend which the art of Raphael and Algardi has immortalized. Not having obtained Honoria for a wife, A. would a second time have demanded her, sword in hand, if the beautiful Ildico had not been added to his numerous wives, with whom he solemnly united himself. This circumstance hindered him from fulfilling his threats. On this occasion, he gave himself up to all the extravagance of debauchery ; but, on the day after the marriage, the servants and warriors, impatient to salute their master, thronged into the tent: they found Ildico veiled, sitting by the cold corpse of her husband. During the night, he had been suffocated by his own blood (453). The news of his death spread sorrow and terror in the army. His body was enclosed in three coffins-the first was of gold, the second of silver, and the third of iron. The captives, who had made the grave, were strangled.-The description that Jornandes has left us of this barbarian king reminds us of his Calmuck-Tartar origin. He had a large head, a flat nose, broad shoulders, and a short and ill-formed body. His walk was proud, his voice strong and well-toned.

ATTIRET, John Denis, a French Jesuit and painter, was born at Dole, FrancheComté, in 1702, and died, in 1788, at Pekin, whither he had accompanied a mission. The emperor Kien-Long was so much pleased with his battle-pieces, that

he offered him the dignity of mandarin, and gave him the income thereto belonging, when A. refused the Chinese title. A. wrote a very interesting account of the emperor's gardens, of which a translation by Spence, under the name of sir Harry Beaumont, appeared in 1752.

ATTITUDE (French), as a term of art, signifies the position and situation of figures. Attitudes require a regular study, a part of which is a knowledge of anatomy. The art of exhibiting attitudes, at least in modern times, is of recent invention. At the end of the last century, the celebrated lady Hamilton began the practice, and, as every art begins with imitation, she imitated, with great talent, the attitudes of antique statues in many large towns of Europe, and sir William Hamilton could say that he possessed, in his wife, a whole collection of antiques. Her dress was a simple tunic, fastened with a ribbon tight under the breast, and a shawl. With these she imitated all the different draperies. Mr. Rehberg drew her attitudes, and published them in London. On the continent of Europe, this art has been carried to much perfection by Mrs. Hendel-Schütz, who exhibited the most beautiful attitudes, copied from the Greek, Egyptian, Italian and German styles of art. But she was not satisfied with imitations: she invented many attitudes, which were declared, by all the critics of the day (amongst whom was Göthe), some of the finest productions of art Her attitudes have been drawn and published by Peroux and Ritter (Frankf. on the Maine, 1809). There has been also a male artist of the same kind, Mr. von Seckendorf (called Patrick Peale), who accompanied his exhibitions with lectures. He died in America.

ATTORNEY (attornatus, in Latin), a person appointed to do something for and in the stead and name of another. An attorney is either public or special. The former is an officer of a court, who is authorized by the laws and the rules of the court to represent suitors, without any special written authority for the purpose. The rules and qualifications, whereby one is authorized to practise as an attorney in any court, are very different in different countries and in different courts of the same country. There are various statutes on this subject in the laws of the several U. States, and almost every court has certain rules, a compliance with which is necessary, in order to authorize any one to appear in court for, and represent any party to a suit, without a special au

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thority under seal. The principle upon which these rules are founded, is the exclusion of persons not qualified by honesty, good moral character, learning and skill, from taking upon them this office. And any attorney may, by malpractice, forfeit this privilege; and the court, in such case, strikes his name from the roll of attorneys. Still this does not prevent his being a special attorney, with a specific power from any person who wishes to constitute him his representative; for every man, who is capable of contracting, has the power to confer upon another the right of representing him, and acting in his stead. An attorney of a court has authority, for and in the name of his principal, to do any acts necessary for conducting a suit, and his employer is bound by his acts.-A special attorney is appointed by a deed called a power or letter of attorney, and the deed by which he is appointed specifies the acts which he is authorized to do. It is a commission, to the extent of which only he can bind his principal. As far as the acts of the attorney, in the name of the principal, are authorized by his power, his acts are those of his principal. But if he goes beyond his authority, his acts will bind himself only; and he must indemnify any one to whom, without authority, he represents himself as an attorney of another, and who contracts with him, or otherwise puts confidence in him, as being such attorney.

ATTRACTION; the tendency, as well of the parts of matter in general, as of various particular bodies, to approach each other, to unite, and to remain united; sometimes, also, the power inherent in matter, exerting itself at the moment of approach. Experience teaches that this property is common to all matter. Even liquids cohere in their parts, and oppose any endeavor to separate them. The minute particles unite into drops; drops, if they are brought in contact, into large masses. Fluids attach themselves to solid bodies, particularly to such as have very smooth surfaces, as to glass: they rise up of themselves in fine tubes (see Capillary Tube), &c. Every body tends to the earth, and, if raised from its surface, falls back to it again. The plumb-line, which is usually vertical, takes an oblique direction in the vicinity of high mountains; the sea tends to the moon; the moon itself is constantly drawn towards the earth; the earth and the other planets, towards the sun. The heavenly bodies are continually subject to the simple law

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of mutual attraction. The Grecian naturalists speak of attraction; Copernicus and Tycho likewise admit it; Kepler's bold and comprehensive mind first hazarded the assertion that it must be universal and mutual in all bodies; Des Cartes sought to banish it entirely from natural philosophy, as one of those occult powers which he did not acknowledge; but Newton adopted it, and determined its laws, after many years of accurate observation. Fruitless attempts have been made to explain it. The phenomenon of attraction is exhibited, either in bodies that are at perceptible distances from each other, and is then called gravitation; or in bodies at insensible distances, taking place between their surfaces, when it is adhesion; or uniting their component parts, when it is cohesion. (q. v.) We cannot enumerate all the particular subdivisions of attraction, but the most important are those of chemical affinities (q. v.), of magnetic and electric attractions, &c. (Respecting these, see the particular articles.) The best work on the attraction of the heavenly bodies is Newton's Philosoph. Natural. Principia Mathematica. On the attraction which mountains exert on the plumb-line, see von Zach's L'Attraction des Montagnes et ses Effets sur les Fils à Plomb (Avignon, 1814, 2 vols.) Kant's Metaphys. Elements of Natural Science (3d ed. Leips., 1800) treats of the nature of attraction. (For further information on the subject of attraction, see the article Mechanics.)

ATTRIBUTE. 1. Every quality which is ascribed to any one as characteristic. 2. The sign which indicates that quality. In this latter sense, it is synonymous with symbol. (q. v.)

ATWOOD, George, F. R. S.; an eminent mathematician, who was educated at the university of Cambridge. In 1784, he published, in one volume, 8vo., a Treatise on the Rectilinear Motion and Rotation of Bodies; with a Description of Original Experiments relative to that Subject-a work remarkable for its perspicuity, and the extensive information which it affords. About the same time, he made public an Analysis of a Course of Lectures on the Principles of Natural Philosophy, read at the University of Cambridge, which is not less valuable than the preceding. William Pitt, having attended Mr. At wood's university lectures, conceived such an opinion of his talents and scientific information, that he engaged him to devote a considerable part of his time to financial calculations, and bestowed on him a

sinecure office, the income of which he retained from 1784 till his death, in 1807, at the age of 62, when the office which he had held was abolished. Mr. Atwood published a Dissertation on the Construction and Properties of Arches, 1801, 4to., and several other valuable treatises relating to mathematics and mechanical sci

ence.

ATYS, or ATTYS. 1. The favorite of Cybele, who, having broken the vow of chastity which he made to the goddess, castrated himself, as a punishment for his crime. (See Cybele.)-2. A son of Crosus, king of Lydia; an affecting example of filial love. He was dumb, when, seeing a soldier in a battle who had raised a sword against his father, he exerted himself so much, that the bands of his tongue gave way, and he cried out, “ Soldier, kill not Croesus!"

AUBAINE, DRoit d'. Foreigners in France, in the middle ages, were called Albani, or Albini. Some derive this word from Albanach, which term the Highlanders of Scotland, even now, apply to themselves; and, if this name was common to all the Gaelic tribes, or, at least, if it was used by the inhabitants of Bretagne, the German races may have applied it, from this circumstance, to all foreigners. The Romans, indeed, did not permit foreigners to inherit property-a law which the emperor Frederic I abolished, since he gave to all foreigners the right of making a will, and ordered that the effects of such as died without one should be assigned by the bishop to the foreign heirs, or, if this was not possible, should be employed for some pious purposes. France was the only country where foreigners were treated according to the maxim of law, peregrinus liber vivit, servus moritur. They were permitted to acquire all kinds of property, even real estate. They could not, however, obtain it by inheritance, nor bequeath it at their death. The king (by virtue of the law of aliens, droit d'Aubaine), in whose peace and protection they remained during life, was their only heir after death. No feudal lord could acquire this right. It was very early softened in favor of the relations who resided in the kingdom. Some cities, as Lyons, in order to favor commerce, obtained the privilege that the estate of foreigners who died in them should go to the foreign heirs, and this was agreed upon by treaties with certain states. (See the account of these states in Schlözer's State Papers-Staatsanzeigen-H. 31, and the later treaties in Marten's Recueil des Traités.) The