their occupation only by night. Hence this wood became the grove of Hecate. AVERROES (corrupted from Ebn or Ibn Rushd), the most renowned of the Arabian philosophers, and instructer of Moses Maimonides, was born at Cordova, in Spain. His father, chief magistrate there, instructed him in the Mohammedan laws, and appointed Tophail to teach him theology and philosophy. His talents and knowledge procured him the succession to his father's office. The king of Morocco appointed him cadi in the province of Mauritania. But his success was envied, and he was accused of rejecting the established religion, and, in consequence, deprived of his offices, and banished to Spain. He returned to Cordova, where he was assisted by his scholar Maimonides; but was soon persecuted there, also, and fled to Fez. Here he was condemned, by a spiritual court, to recant, and undergo a public penance. Upon this, he went back to his own country, where the caliph Almansor, after a time, restored him to his dignities. He died, after an active life, at Morocco, A. D. 1217 or 1225. A. regarded Aristotle as the greatest of all philosophers, and explained his writings, with only a slight deviation from his views. The Alexandrian doctrines, also, had much influence upon him. Against the orthodox Arabians, particularly against Algazal, he set himself up as a defender of philosophy on rational principles. He was called, among the Arabians, by way of eminence, the Interpreter (of Aristotle). They adhered very closely to his translation of Aristotle, made from the Syriac. He wrote, also, a compendium of physic, called Colliget, or Universal, and many treatises in theology, philosophy, jurisprudence and medicine.

AVESNES, or AVENNES; one of those many fortresses which protect France on the side of Germany, and which mostly originated under the restless Louis XIV. It was also one of the fortresses kept by the allies by the terms of the peace of 1815. Lon. 4° E.; lat. 50° 7′ N.

AVEYRON, département de l'; a French department in the former Guyenne and Garogne. (See Department.)

AVICENNA, or EBN-SINA, an Arabian philosopher and physician, was born at Assena, near Bochara, A. D. 980. He possessed a ready genius and a strong memory, and, after going through a course of study with various masters, became a pupil at the school of Bagdad, where he exhibited indefatigable industry and

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no inconsiderable portion of fanaticism. According to his own account, he read the metaphysics of Aristotle 40 times without understanding them. He completed his studies at the early age of 18, and began to practise as a physician. He soon acquired a degree of reputation which reached the ears of the various Eastern princes, all of whom were desirous of retaining him in their service; but he finally went into that of the sultan Nedjmeddevle, who appointed him his physician and grand vizier. His undue love of pleasure, however, soon made him lose his post and his master's favor; and the remainder of his life was spent in great adversity, as he was charged with the crime of heresy, in addition to other accusations. He died at Hamadan, in abject circumstances, A. D. 1036, aged 58. A. left many writings, mostly commentaries on Aristotle. They consist of 20 books on the Utility of the Sciences; the Heads of Logic; and various pieces in metaphysics and morals. Of his medical works, the principal is called Canon Medicine, which is thought very lightly of by Haller and Freind. His works were printed in the original Arabic, at Rome, in 1497, more than one Latin version of which has been translated, the latest being that of Vopucius Fortunatus, (Louvain, 1651.)

AVIENUS, Rufus Festus; a Latin poet of the 4th century. The works attributed to him are, Latin versions of the Phenomena of Aratus, and Periegesis of Dionysius, &c. Some of these productions still remain, and show him to have been a tolerable versifier. The best edition of his works is that of Cannegetier, 1731. Very little is known of his history.

AVIGNON, chief city of the department of Vaucluse, in the south-eastern part of France, on the Rhone, with narrow and crooked streets, contains a great number of churches and sacred buildings, among which is the church of the Franciscans; several scientific institutions, and among them an athenæum and a medical library; 2800 houses and 24,000 inhabitants; respectable silk manufactories, silk-dyeing establishments, and other works. The country is agreeable, and extremely fruitful in corn, wine, olives, the Avignon berry (of a yellow color), kermes, sumach, and the richest fruits of the south. Here Petrarch lived several years: here he saw his Laura, who formed the subject of he most beautiful verses, and whose tomb is still to be found in the Franciscan church The fountain of Vaucluse is five leagues

from A. This city and its district, in the middle ages, was a county which the popes, who had already received the county of Venaissin, in 1273, from king Philip the Bold, as a present, bought of Joanna, queen of Sicily and countess of Provence, in 1348, for 80,000 florins. Joanna had fled to Provence because Louis I, king of Hungary, wished to take revenge on her for the death of his brother, her husband, whom she had caused to be murdered. The papal government retained the two provinces, under the rule of a vice-legate, till 1790, when, after many stormy scenes, the city, with its district, was annexed to the French republic, and, in 1791, was formally united with it. At the peace of Tolentino, the pope renounced A. and Venaissin. Louis XIV and Louis XV several times took possession of A., when offended with the popes. From 1305 to 1377, seven popes in succession fixed their residence in this city. The Catholic historians commonly call this period the Babylonish captivity of the popes. Near A. are found many Roman antiquities.

AVOIRDUPOIS (French, avoir du pois); a kind of weight, of which a pound contains 16 ounces, and is in proportion to a pound troy as 17 to 14. All the larger and coarser commodities are weighed by avoirdupois weight. The avoirdupois ounce is less than the troy ounce in the proportion of 72 to 79; though the pound, as we have said, is greater. (See Measures.)

AVON; the name of four rivers in England:-1. Rising in Leicestershire, runs S. W., and falls into the Severn at Tewksbury. Stratford-on-Avon, a town on this river, is the birth-place of Shakspeare. 2. In Monmouthshire. 3. In Wiltshire, enters the English channel at Christchurch bay, in Hampshire. 4. The Lower Avon, which rises near Tetbury, in Gloucestershire, and falls into the Severn N. W. of Bristol, being navigable as far as Bath.

AWARD. (See Arbitration.)

A-WEIGH; the state of the anchor when it is drawn out of the ground in a perpendicular direction.

AXEL. (See Absalom.)

AXIM; a part of the fertile territory of Ahanta, on the Gold Coast. The Dutch have a fort here, called fort Anthony, situated on the most western promontory of cape Three Points. The Portuguese founded the first settlement here, but were driven from it by the Dutch, in 1642.-Arim is likewise the name of a

river which runs through the capital of this country, called, also, Arim.

AXINITE; a crystallized substance, found principally in Dauphiny, in France, and latterly in Cornwall, in the neighborhood of St. Just. The colors are generally a light violet-brown. Its name is derived from the general form of the crystals, the edges of which bear some resemblance to the edge of an axe.

AXIOM (principle); a universal proposition, which the understanding must perceive to be true as soon as it perceives the meaning of the words, though it cannot be proved, because it is impossible to make it plainer. It is therefore called a self-evident truth. To these propositions belong, indisputably, those in which the subject and predicate are either the same or are only expressed in different words, since we cannot think a thing is really different from itself: for instance, A is A; Every quantity is like itself; A thing is like itself; A thing cannot, at the same time, be and not be ; &c. To axioms belong also propositions, of which the predicate expresses only some idea which enters necessarily into our conception of the subject. Such is the proposition, A triangle has three sides, because the subject, triangle, cannot be conceived otherwise than three-sided. All reasoning must start from axioms. There has been much dispute what proposition is to be regarded as absolutely first in all human knowledge. Some have considered as such the position, It is impossible for a thing to be and not to be at the same time; others, Whatever is, is; others, Every thing either is or is not; others, the principle of the sufficient reason, We cannot regard any thing as true without proofs, or any thing false against established proofs. All these positions are fundamental truths. They all have this in common, that we cannot help regulating our thoughts, in the judgment of truth, conformably to them. They are all necessarily believed to be true. Many principles, however, are esteemed, by one class of men, self-evident, which another will not admit. There can never, therefore, exist perfect uniformity in human reasoning. There is only one science, which starts from axioms acknowledged by all mankind, and which, therefore, is of a more general character than any other-viz. mathematics. But about some principles of every other science, which are generally considered axioms, great doubts have existed. Thus it is regarded as an axiom of moral philosophy, that There exists a

ian of the observer and the vertical circle passing through the star. It is easterly, if the star is observed before, westerly, if after, and zero, if at, the time of culmination. It is usual to connect with the quadrant a graduated, horizontal circle, called the azimuth circle. The zero of its divisions is brought into the situation of the meridian, and we have immediately the azimuth of the star, whose height above the horizon is determined by the telescope of the quadrant.

AZINCOURT. (See Agincourt.)

AZOGA SHIPS (from the Spanish azogue, quicksilver) were those Spanish ships, commonly called the quicksilver ships, from their carrying mercury to the Spanish West Indies, to extract the silver from the mines of Mexico and Peru. They were prohibited from carrying any goods except for the king of Spain.

AZOPH, or Azor; a small town and fortress in the Russian government of Ekaterinoslav, upon an island at the mouth of the Don, where it flows into the sea of Azoph. Lat. 46° 53′ N.; lon. 39° 14' E. It contains about 3000 inhabitants, and was, as late as 1774, given up entirely to the Russians by the Turks. The Sea of Azoph is merely a bay of the Black sea, with which it is united by the straits of Caffa. In the middle ages, it was called Mar de Zabacchi, and, in ancient times, Palus Mæotis. Its principal port is Taganrock. Its fish are plentiful. On Sept. 5, 1799, a new volcanic island was thrown up. The sea is 210 miles in length, and about 50 broad. Lat. 45° 20′ -47° 20′ N.; lon. 34° 30-39° 30′ E.

AZORES (i. e., Hawk islands); a group of nine Portuguese islands in the Atlantic ocean, between Africa and America, extending from 36° to 39° N. lat., and containing 1160 sq. miles. The inhabitants are of Portuguese origin, and governed by Portuguese laws. The country is volcanic and mountainous, but wellwatered and uncommonly fruitful. The highest mountain, the peak of Pico, is 7016 feet high. The climate is warm and healthy, producing corn, wine, and various fruits. The inhabitants are engaged in grazing and fisheries, have some manufactures and a lively trade. There is no good harbor. The Portuguese discovered these islands, A. D. 1446, though the Dutch navigators had seen them earlier, and called them the Flemish islands. Their names are St. Michael, population 80,000; Tercera, 28,900; Pico, 20,900; St. George, 11,200; Fayal, 16,300; Santa Maria, 5000; Graciosa, 7400; Flores,

7100; and Corvo, 800. Angra, the chief city, on Tercera, contains 15,000 inhabit ants. The total population of the Azores is estimated by some at more than 200,000.

AZOTE (from as and g, life, because it is fatal to animal life; called also nitrogen, because one of the most important properties of its base is, that, in combination with oxygen, it composes nitric acid); a gas. Though incapable of supporting respiration or combustion, its presence seems to be necessary to dilute the oxygen, and thus diminish its activity. Atmos pheric air is a mixture of oxygen and azote, in the proportion of 21 to 79 in volume. The specific gravity of azote is 0,9757, that of air being taken as unity. Its refractive power is 1,03408. The specific caloric of azote and the air, taken in equal volumes, is the same; taken by equal weights, that of azote is greater. Azote is procured by burning phosphorus in a receiver over mercury; the phosphorus unites with the oxygen, and the azote is set free: it still contains a small quantity of carbonic acid, which is separated by shaking the gas in a closed bottle, containing lime-water, from which the air has been exhausted. It is also evolved from decaying organized substances, and forms ammonia with their hydrogen when burnt. Azote has a feeble affinity for other substances; the number of mineral compounds into which it enters is, therefore, small.—Animal and vegetable substances differ from each other only in this, that the former contain azote, the latter are destitute of it.-Some chemists consider azote a compound of equal volumes of oxygen, and a base which they call nitricum.

ÁZYME, or AZYMUS (Greek, agupos, without ferment, unleavened); a term much used in the violent controversies between the Roman and Greek Catholics; the former of whom contend, that the bread, in the mass, ought to be azymus. The controversies on this important subject are of equal consequence with those between the German Lutherans and Calvinists, whether the Lord's prayer ought to begin Our Father or Father of us; or between some religious orders, whether the cowl ought to be pointed or round, &c., &c., &c.

AZYMITES. (See Azyme.)

AZZARA, don Joseph Nicholas, chevalier d', born, 1731, at Barbanales, in Arragon, early showed a strong inclination for the arts and sciences, which was increased by his connexion with the painter Mengs,

who had entered the service of the king of Spain. A. entered on the career of diplomacy, was sent to pope Clement XIII, as royal agent for ecclesiastical affairs, highly distinguished himself in this post, and always maintained a great influence in the most important negotiations between his country and the papal court. (See Dohm's Memoirs of Joseph II. and Rome.) In 1796, he was sent to the conqueror of Italy, to obtain his favor towards Rome. Bonaparte immediately conceived an esteem for him, and, after this meeting, A. always regarded him with

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admiration. At that time, also, commenced. his connexion with Joseph Bonaparte. He went soon after, in a diplomatic character, to Paris, where the agreeable society and reception which he met with compensated him for the loss of his old friends, of an elegant library, and a rich collection of paintings and antiques. He was subsequently recalled, banished to Barcelona, again sent ambassador to Paris, and again deprived of this important office. His feeble health at last gave way, and he died at Paris, Jan. 26, 1804.

B; the second letter in all European alphabets, in Hebrew, and most other languages. It belongs to the mutes and the labials, and, as all labials are easy to be pronounced, b is one of the first letters which children learn to speak, after they utter a. The first syllable which they pronounce is, generally, ba or pa. The pronunciation of b differs from that of only in this, that the lips are compressed a little more closely. The difference is so slight, that, in all original languages, a considerable period elapses before the two sounds cease to be used indifferently. In some languages, b continues to be pronounced v, under certain circumstances. In the Spanish, it has this sound between two vowels in the middle of a word, and, generally, when it occurs between a vowel preceding, and an r succeeding it. The modern Greeks pronounce b always v, and represent our sound of b by combining the two letters μ and ; e. g., Boston they write MROGTOV. The languages of the American Indians have few perfect labials, and are, therefore, spoken with an open mouth, and scarcely any motion of the lips. Another letter, into which bis often changed, is p, which requires merely a stronger breathing, with the same motion of the lips. In one part of Saxony, the people use p and b indifferently, and, in another part, b is not used at all. Some languages regularly change b into p, under certain circumstances; as the Latin, when this letter occurs before p; thus ob is changed into op before ponere (opponere), The German pronounces b, at the end of

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a word, invariably p.-B is often used as an abbreviation, and its most common meanings are before (as in B. C.), bachelor (as in B. A., B. D., B. L.). Among the Greeks and Hebrews, B signified 2; among the Romans, 300; with a dash over it, 3000; and with a sort of accent under it, 200. (See Abbreviations.)-In music, b is the designation of the seventh note in the natural diatonic scale of c, to which De Nevers, a French musician, in the beginning of the last century, is said to have first applied the syllable si. The ancients denoted by b the second interval in their musical scale, beginning with a-the only interval, with them, which had two chords differing half a note. The lower one was denoted by a small B, the higher one by a large B.

BAAL, BEL; a Babylonian or Phonician god, the idea of whom has been very much obscured by time, and the imperfection of language. Some believe him to have been a man, the founder of Babylon; Herodotus calls him the son of Alcæus; others make him a Chaldean giant. From the traditions which history has transmitted to us, we might think him to have been an extraordinary man, who founded the kingdom of Babylon, and was afterwards deified. Some writers report of him, that he made the land fertile and habitable, connected rivers by canals, and surrounded Babylon with a wall. His son Ninus, the great conqueror, is said to have declared him a god after his death, and to have ordered that divine honors should be paid him. But his worship