Quakers, he was received every where with the highest marks of respect. The strength of his understanding rendered this extraordinary man equally adequate to what is considered most important in the business of the world, as appears from an excellent letter addressed by him, on public affairs, to the assembled ministers of the various powers of Europe at Nimeguen. The last of his productions, in defence of the theory of the Quakers, was a long Latin letter, addressed, in 1676, to Adrian de Paets, On the Possibility of an Inward and Immediate Revelation. It was not published in England until 1686; from which time B., who had endured his share of persecution, and been more than once imprisoned, spent the remaining part of his life, in the bosom of a large family, in quiet and peace. He died, after a short illness, at his own house, in Uri, 1690, in the 42d year of his age. With few exceptions, both partisans and opponents upite in the profession of great respect for the character and talents of B. Besides the works already mentioned or alluded to, he wrote a treatise On Universal Love, and various replies to the most able opponents of his Apology. He left seven children, all of whom were living fifty years after the death of their father.

BARD. This name, of uncertain etymology, is applied to the poets of the Celtic tribes, who, in battle, raised the war-cry, and, in peace, sang the exploits of their heroes, celebrated the attributes of their gods, and chronicled the history of their nation. Originally spread over the greater part of western Europe, they seem to have been the heralds, the priests and the lawgivers of the free barbarians, who first occupied its ancient forests, until, by the gradual progress of southern civilization and despotism, they were driven back into the fastnesses of Wales, Ireland and Scotland, where the last echoes of their harps have long since died away. Their early history is uncertain. Diodorus (lib. v. 31.) tells us, that the Celts had bards, who sang to musical instruments; and Strabo (lib. iv.) testifies that they were treated with respect approaching to veneration. The passage of Tacitus (Germ. 7.) is a doubtful reading. Heyne does not venture to decide whether it is barditus, as some, who explain it to mean bard's song, maintain, or baritus, which, according to Adelung, is the true reading, and signifies merely war-cry. The first Welsh bards, of whom any thing is extant, are Taliesin,

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Aneurin and Llywarch, of the 6th century; but their language is imperfectly understood. From the days of these monarchs of the bards, we have nothing further till the middle of the 10th century, when the reputation of the order was increased under the auspices of Howel Dhu. A code of laws was framed, by that prince, to regulate their duties and fix their privileges. They were distributed into three classes, with a fixed allowance; degrees of rank were established, and prize-contests instituted. Their order was frequently honored by the admission of princes, among whom was Llewellyn, fast king of Wales. Welsh, kept in awe as they were by the Romans, harassed by the Saxons, and eternally jealous of the attacks, the encroachments and the neighborhood of aliens, were, on this account, attached to their Celtic manners. This situation and these circumstances inspired them with a proud and obstinate determination to maintain a national distinction, and preserve their ancient usages, among which the bardic profession is so eminent. Sensible of the influence of their traditional poetry in keeping alive the ideas of military valor and of ancient glory among the people, Edward I is said to have collected all the Welsh bards, and caused them to be hanged, by martial law, as stirrers up of sedition. On this incident is founded Gray's well-known ode "The Bard." We, however, find them existing at a much later period, but confining themselves to the humble task of compiling private genealogies. But little is known of the music and measures of the bards: their prosody depended much on alliteration: their instruments were the harp, the pipe and the crwth. Some attempts have lately been made, in Wales, for the revival of bardism, and the Cambrian society was formed, in 1818, for the preservation of the remains of this ancient literature, and for the encouragement of the national muse. The bardic institution of the Irish bears a strong affinity to that of the Welsh. The genealogical sonnets of the Irish bards are still the chief foundations of the ancient history

of Ireland. Their songs are strongly marked with the traces of Scaldic imagination, which still appears among the "tale-tellers," a sort of poetical historians, supposed to be the descendants of the bards. There was, also, evidently a connexion of the Welsh with Armorica. Hence, in the early French romances, we often find the scene laid in Wales; and,

on the other hand, many fictions have passed from the Troubadours into the tales of the Welsh.-In the Highlands of Scotland, there are considerable remains of many of the compositions of their old bards still preserved. The most wonderful of these are the poems of Ossian, collected and translated by Macpherson. Their genuineness has been doubted; but the report of a committee of the Highland society, published in 1805, of which Mackenzie was editor, proves, as they contend, that a part of them is authentic, and that the greater portion of the remainder was really obtained from traditionary sources. "These poems," says Warton (History of English Poetry, diss. 1.), "notwithstanding the difference between the Gothic and the Celtic rituals, contain many visible vestiges of Scandinavian superstition. The allusions, in the songs of Ossian, to spirits who preside over the different parts, and direct the various operations of nature; who send storms over the deep, and rejoice in the shrieks of the shipwrecked mariner; who call down lightning to blast the forest or cleave the rock, and diffuse irresistible pestilence among the people, beautifully conducted and heightened under the skilful hand of a master bard, entirely correspond with the Runic system, and breathe the spirit of its poetry."

BARDESANES the Gnostic, a Syrian who lived, in the latter half of the second century, in Edessa, and was a favorite of the king Abgar Bar Maanu, is memorable for the peculiarity of his doctrines. He considered the evil in the world only as an accidental reaction of matter, and all life as the offspring of male and female Eons. From God, the inscrutable Principle of all substances, and from the consort of this first Principle, proceeded Christ, the Son of the Living, and a female Holy Ghost; from these, the spirits or creative powers of the four elements; thus forming the holy eight, or the godlike fulness, whose visible copies he found in the sun, the moon and the stars, and therefore attributed to these all the changes of nature, and of human destiny. The female Holy Ghost, impregnated by the Son of the Living, was, according to him, the Creator of the world. The human soul, originally of the nature of the Eons, was confined in the material body only as a punishment of its fall, but not subjected to the dominion of the stars. He considered Jesus, the Æon destined for the salvation of souls, only a feigned man, and his death only a feigned death,

but his doctrine the sure means to fill the souls of men with ardent desires for their celestial home, and to lead them back to God, to whom they go immediately after death, and without a resurrection of the earthly body. B. propagated this doctrine in Syrian hymns, and is the first writer of hymns in this language. His son Harmonius studied in Athens, and strove, also, by means of hymns, to procure the reception of his doctrine. Yet the Bardesanists did not formally separate themselves from the orthodox Christian church. They maintained themselves until the 5th century. Valentinus the Gnostic approached the nearest to B., without being his follower. A fragment of the work of B. upon destiny is preserved in the Greek language, by Eusebius (Præpar. Evangel. lib. 6, cap. 10). He led an irreproachable life. Fragments of his Syrian hymns, which display a rich and ardent fancy, are to be found in those hymns which the Syrian patriarch Ephraim composed against his doctrine.

BAREFOOTED FRIARS; monks who do not use shoes, but merely sandals, or go entirely barefoot. In several orders of mendicant friars, e. g., among the Carmelites, Franciscans, Augustins, there are congregations of barefooted monks and barefooted nuns, but nowhere a separate order of this kind.

BARETTI, Joseph, an Italian writer, was the son of an architect of Turin, where he was born in the year 1716. He received a good education and some paternal property, which, according to his own confession, he soon gamed away. In 1748, he repaired to England. In 1753, he published, in English, a Defence of the Poetry of Italy against the Censures of M. Voltaire. About this time, he was introduced to doctor Johnson, then engaged in the compilation of his Dictionary, of which B. availed himself to compile an Italian and English Dictionary, in 1760, much more complete than any which had before appeared. In this year, he revisited his native country, and published, at Venice, a journal under the title of Frusta Literaria, which met with great success, but, owing to the severity of its criticisms, subjected the author to unpleasant if not dangerous consequences. After an absence of six years, he therefore returned, through Spain and Portugal, to England, and, in 1768, published an Account of the Manners and Customs of Italy. Doctor Johnson, whose friendship to him was always warm and cordial, soon after

introduced him to the Thrale family. Not long after his return from Italy, an incident occurred to him of the most distressing nature. Accosted in the Haymarket by a woman of the town, he repulsed her with a degree of roughness which produced an attack from some of her male confederates, and, in the scuffle, he struck one of the assailants with a French pocket dessert-knife. On this, the man pursued and collared him; when B., still more alarmed, stabbed him repeatedly with the knife, and he died of the wounds on the following day. He was immediately taken into custody, and was tried for murder at the Old Bailey, but acquitted. On this occasion, Johnson, Burke, Goldsmith, Garrick, Reynolds and Beauclerk gave testimony to his good character; and, although he did not escape censure for his too ready resort to a knife, his acquittal was generally approved. In 1770, he published his Journey from London to Genoa, through England, Portugal, Spain and France-a work replete with information and entertainment. He also continued to publish introductory works, for the use of students in the Italian and other modern languages, and superintended a complete edition of the works of Machiavel. The latter part of his life was harassed with pecuniary difficulties, which were very little alleviated by his honorary post of foreign secretary to the royal academy, and an ill-paid pension of £80 per annum under the North administration. In 1786, he published a work with the singular title of "Tolendron: Speeches to John Bowles about his Edition of Don Quixote, together with some Account of Spanish Literature." He died in May, 1789. B., although rough and cynical in his appearance, was a pleasant companion; and of his powers in conversation doctor Johnson thought highly. He was deemed a latitudinarian in respect to religion; but his integrity was unimpeached, his morals pure, and his manners correet. He had, also, a high sense of the value of independence, and often refused pecuniary assistance when he most needed it.

BAREZZI, Stefano, painter in Milan, has made himself known by the mode which he invented of taking old fresco paintings from walls, by fixing upon them a piece of linen, covered with a certain cement, which loosens the colors; they are then transferred upon a board prepared for the purpose, upon which, after removing the linen, they remain perfectly firm. In the hall of exhibition of the palace Brera is to

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be seen a painting of Aurelio Luino, representing the torture of St. Vincent, which he has safely transferred to a board in this manner.

BARFLEUR; a sea-port of France, in the department of the Channel; 12 miles east of Cherburg. Lon. 1° 15′ W.; lat. 49° 40′ N. Pop. 900. It was, at one time, the best port on the coast of Normandy; but, in the year 1346, it was taken and pillaged by Edward III, king of England, and the harbor destroyed. William the Conqueror fitted out at B. the expedition which effected the conquest of England.

BARGAIN AND SALE, INSTRUMENT OF, is an indenture whereby lands and tenements are granted. By the stat. 27 Hen. VIII, c. 16, it was enacted that an estate of freehold should not pass by bargain and sale, unless by indenture enrolled in one of the courts of Westminster, or in the county where the lands lie. This statute would have introduced the general practice of enrolment of deeds in England, had it extended to leasehold estates. To remedy this defect in some measure, the statute of 29 Charles II, c. 3, was enacted; which provides against conveying lands or hereditaments for more than three years, or declaring trusts otherwise than in writing. conveyance by bargain and sale, in England, is very similar to the conveyances by deed, most generally in use in the U. States.

The

The

BARILLA; the term applied, in commerce, to a product obtained from the combustion of certain marine vegetables. This word is the Spanish name of a plant (salsola soda), from the ashes of which is produced the above substance, which affords the alkali (soda). This is also procured from the ashes of prickly saltwort, shrubby saltwort (salsola fruticosa) and numerous plants of other tribes. plants made use of for burning differ in different countries; and the residue of their incineration contains the soda in various states of purity. The barilla derived from the abesembryanthemum nodiflorum of Spain, and the M. copticum of Africa, contains from 25 to 40 per cent. of carbonate of soda; whereas that from the salsola and the salicornia of other districts affords about half this quantity; and the particular variety known under the name of kelp, procured by burning various sea-weeds, is a still coarser article, not yielding above 2 or 3 per cent. of real soda. To obtain the carbonate of soda, it is only requisite to lixiviate the

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barilla in boiling water, and evaporate the solution. On the shores of the Mediterranean, where the preparation of soda is pursued to a considerable extent, the seeds of the plants from which it is obtained are regularly sown in places near the sea. These, when at a sufficient state of maturity, are pulled up by the roots, dried, and afterwards tied in bundles to be burnt. This, in some places, is done in ovens constructed for the purpose, and, in others, in trenches dug near the sea. The ashes, whilst they are hot, are continually stirred with long poles, and the saline matter they contain forms, when cold, a solid mass, almost as hard as stone. This is afterwards broken into pieces of convenient size for exportation. The best sort of Spanish soda is in dark-colored masses of a bluish tinge, very heavy, sonorous, dry to the touch, and externally abounding in small cavities. Its taste is very sharp, corrosive, and strongly saline. The important uses of soda in the arts, and especially the constant consumption of it in the manufacture of all kinds of fine and hard soaps, are well known. The greater part of the barillas or crude sodas of commerce, are now obtained from the ashes of various sea-weeds, which manufacture is extensively prosecuted upon the western shores of Scotland. (For an account of this, see Kelp.) BARING, Alexander, a banker in London, and member of parliament, one of the directors of the East India company and the bank of England, is the second son of the late merchant and baronet, sir Francis Baring. He belongs to the whig party, like his father and the whole family, but he is opposed to the radical reformers. His house is known to the merchants of the whole civilized world, and attracted much notice from the public in general, when he placed himself at the head of the great French loan, and appeared, on this occasion, at the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1818. The conditions of this loan were, as we know from the French papers, extremely advantageous, and made his house one of the first in Europe. B., like Necker, can use his pen well, and obtained a respectable place among writers on political economy by his Inquiry into the Causes and Consequences of the Orders in Council (London, 1808). He and his brother Henry married two sisters, the heiresses of an American gentleman named Bingham, each of whom received a dowry of £100,000. His late father, sir Francis, was descended from an old family in

Devonshire, and was often consulted by Pitt in relation to commercial affairs.

BARITON; a male voice, the compass of which partakes of those of the common bass and the tenor, but does not extend so far downwards as the one, nor to an equal height with the other.

BARJAPOOR. (See Beejapoor.)

BARK, PERUVIAN, is the produce of a tree, the various species of cinchona, which is the spontaneous growth of many parts of South America, but more particularly of Peru. The tree is said somewhat to resemble a cherry-tree in appearance, and bears clusters of red flowers.This valuable medicine was formerly called Jesuit's bark, from its having been introduced into Europe by the members of that religious order, who were settled in South America. They were instructed in the use of it by the natives of Peru, to whom it had been long known; and it continued, for many years, a source of profit to the order. Its botanical name was derived from that of the countess del Cinchon, the lady of a Spanish_viceroy, who had been cured by it. The tree from which it is obtained grows abundantly in the forests of Quito and Peru, and the bark is cut by the natives in the months of September, October and November, during which, alone, the weather is free from rain. The bark is of three kinds-the red, the yellow and the pale. The first has now become scarce, but has also lost the exclusive reputation which it once had, the yellow and pale barks having been found to be stronger in their febrifuge properties. The crown-bark, as the highest-priced is termed, is of a pale, yellowish-red. The uses of the bark, in medicine, are too well known to need description; but the chemical discoveries in relation to it are deserving of more particular mention. Its medicinal properties were found, a few years since, to depend upon the presence of a substance called quinine. This exists, more or less, in all kinds of Peruvian bark, but in quantities very unequal in the various kinds. It was discovered by Messrs. Pelletier and Caventou, who also ascertained that the most useful and permanent form of the substance was that of a neutral salt, in which it was combined with sulphuric acid, constituting the celebrated sulphate of quinine. This extract is so powerful, that one grain of it is a dose; and thus does this little powder, which is almost imperceptible, supply the place of the nauseous mouthfuls of bark, which were absolutely eaten by the unfortunate

beings who were afflicted with ague, before this invaluable article was discovered. Next to the bleaching liquor and the gaslights, this may be regarded as the most interesting and valuable of the gifts of chemistry to her sister arts. So extensive has the manufacture of this most important article become, that, in 1826, no less than 1593 cwt. of bark were used by four chemists concerned in the production of it in Paris; and 90,000 ounces of sulphate of quinine were produced in France during the same year, being enough for the curing, at a fair calculation, of near 2,000,000 of sick, who have, by this most happy discovery, been spared the swallowing of at least 10,000,000 ounces of crude bark. This one fact should entitle the name of Pelletier to the gratitude of all posterity.

BARKER, Edmund Henry, one of the most famous living English philologers, born Dec. 22, 1788, at Hollym, in Yorkshire, where his father was a preacher, received his first education at some private institutions in London, and Louth, in Lincolnshire. At the university of Cambridge, where he was a member of Trinity college, he lived, according to the rule of Horace, day and night with the Greeks. In 1809, he wrote a Latin and Greek epigram, which obtained him Browne's gold medal. He also published editions of Cicero De Senectute, and De Amicitia, which were twice reprinted, and of Tacitus's Germania and Agricola, which have been also printed again. He has written, also, a work called Classical Recreations, one vol.; several pieces in the Classical Journal, since the third number; an article in the second number of the Retrospective Review, and some reviews in the British Critic. His participation in the new edition of Henr. Stephani Thesaurus, Gr. L. made him generally known. This work was intrusted to him by Valpy, and procured him the acquaintance of the well-known English philologist Parr. The objections which learned men have made against the too great extension of the plan and the arrangement of the materials, are well founded; but Barker has been the subject, also, of envious attacks. He was obliged to defend himself in a pamphlet, in order to secure the undisturbed progress of his own and Valpy's undertaking. Some German philologists of the first order, as Hermann and Wolf, have spoken of him in high terms. His edition of Arcadius De Accentibus, with an Epistola Critica on Boissonade, is a work of merit. On many occasions, B.

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has afforded assistance to the works of learned Germans, by valuable communications of materials and observations. Since 1814, he has lived at Thetford, in Norfolk, devoting himself entirely to philology. In 1828, he published memoirs of his friend doctor Parr, under the title of Parriana.

BARLEY (in Latin, hordeum); a grain which has been known, like most other kinds of grain, from time immemorial. It has a thick spike; the calyx, husk, awn and flower are like those of wheat or rye, but the awns are rough; the seed is swelling in the middle, and, for the most part, ends in a sharp point, to which the husks are closely united. The species are, 1. common long-eared barley; 2. winter or square barley, by some called big; 3. sprat barley, or battle-door barley. All these sorts of barley are sown in the spring of the year, in a dry time. The square barley, or big, is chiefly cultivated in the north of England and in Scotland, and is hardier than the other sorts. Barley is emollient, moistening, and productive of expectoration: this grain was chosen by Hippocrates as a proper food in inflammatory distempers. The principal use of barley, in England and America, is for making beer; in some parts of the European continent, horses are fed with it, and in other parts, poor people make bread of it. In Scotland, barley is a common ingredient for broths. Pearl barley and French barley are barley freed from the husk by means of a mill; the distinction between the two being, that pearl barley is reduced to the size of small shot, all but the heart of the grain being ground away.

BARLOW, Joel, a poet and diplomatist, was the youngest of 10 children of a respectable farmer in moderate circumstances. He was born at Reading, a village in Connecticut, about 1755. His father died while he was yet a lad at school, leaving hin little more than sufficient to defray, economically, the expenses of a liberal education. In 1774, he was placed at Dartmouth college, New Hampshire, then in its infancy, and, after a very short residence there, entered Yale college, New Haven, where he displayed a talent for versification, which gained him reputation among his fellow-students, and introduced him to the particular notice and friendship of doctor Dwight, then a tutor in that college. These circumstances contributed to excite his poetical ambition still more strongly, and thus fixed the character of his future life. The