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pope, is worthy of remark. On this grant the subsequent popes founded their claims on Ireland.-ADRIAN V, previously called Ottoboni da Fiesco, of Genoa, settled, as legate of the pope, the dispute between king Henry III of England and his nobles, in favor of the former; but died soon after his election to the papal chair, 1276.-ADRIAN VI, son of a mechanic of Utrecht, and professor in Louvain, was, in 1507, appointed tutor of the emperor Charles V. When ambassador of the emperor Maximilian, in 1515, he persuaded Ferdinand the Catholic to nominate young Charles his successor to the Spanish throne; after which he became, in 1516, bishop of Tortosa and regent of Spain, and, in 1517, cardinal. The Spaniards were not pleased with his severe and often partial government, and expressed great joy when, at the suggestion of Charles V, he was elected to the papal chair, in 1522. He was not less hated at Rome, on account of his antipathy to classical literature, and his honest endeavors to reform the papal court, to abolish the prevailing luxury, bribery, and other abuses; but his efforts were frustrated by the cardinals, and, if they had been successful, could not have prevented the progress of the reformation already begun in Germany. A. opposed the zeal of Luther with reproaches and threats, and even attempted to excite Erasmus and Zuinglius against him; but his abilities were not equal to the existing emergency. His measures against France also were unsuccessful. Notwithstanding his honest efforts and upright character, he died unlamented, in 1525, after a reign of one year and a half. His reign was, according to his own confession, the most unhappy period of his life. On his tomb, in the church of St. Peter, is the following epitaph:

Adrianus Papa VI hic situs est,
Qui nihil sibi infelicius
In vita,
Quam quod imperaret,
Duxit.

ADRIANOPLE (in Turkish, Edrene), the second capital and residence of the Ottoman rulers, is situated in ancient Thrace (now Rumelia), on the banks of the navigable river Hebrus (now Maritza). On this spot a small town formerly stood, inhabited by the Bessi, a Thracian tribe. The emperor Adrian founded this city on the left bank of the Hebrus, called it after his own name, and made it the capital of the province of mt. Hæmus. From the range of hills on which it is situated,

Ac

it commands a beautiful prospect over a large and fertile plain, divided by two ranges of hills, between which the river runs. It was fortified, and resisted, in the 4th century, the violent attack of the victorious Goths, who were, however, ignorant of the mode of conducting a regular siege. To give it the appearance of a Greek origin, the writers of Byzantium called it Orestea or Orestias. cording to their accounts, it is five days' journey distant from Constantinople. In 1360, it was taken by Amurath, the Turkish sultan; and from that time it continued to be the residence of the Turkish emperors for nearly a century, until the conquest of Constantinople. The number of the houses is 16,000, and that of the inhabitants 100,000, among whom there are 30,000 Greeks, under an archbishop. It contains also an imperial palace, 40 mosques, of which that of Selim II and of Amurath II are the most magnificent, 22 bathing establishments, with beautiful aqueducts, important manufactures, and exports, among other articles, oil of roses, which is made in its vicinity, of the best kind.

ADRIAN'S WALL; a celebrated Roman work in the north of England. This work, though called by the Roman his torians murus, which signifies a wall of stone, was only composed of earth covered with green turf. It was carried from the Solway frith, in as direct a line as possible, to the river Tyne, on the east, at the place where the town of Newcastle now stands; so that it must have been above 60 English and nearly 70 Roman miles in length. It consisted of four parts: 1, the principal agger, mound of earth or rampart, on the brink of the ditch; 2, the ditch, on the north side of the rampart; 3, another rampart on the south side of the principal one, about five paces distant from it; 4, a large rampart on the north side of the ditch. For many ages, this work has been in so ruinous a condition, that it is impossible to discover its original dimensions with certainty. But from their appearance, it seems probable that the principal rampart was at least ten or twelve feet high, and the south one not much less; the northern one was considerably lower. The ditch, taken as it passes through a lime-stone quarry near Harlow hill, appears to have been 9 feet deep and 11 feet wide at the top. The north rampart was about twenty feet distant from the ditch.

ADRIATIC SEA (mare Adriaticum. Adri

anum), now more commonly called gulf of Venice, though in Italian, German and French the old name continues, is an arm of the Mediterranean included by the coasts of Italy, Illyria, Dalmatia, Albania and Epirus, about 200 leagues long and 50 broad, extending from south-east to north-west, lat. 40° to 50° 55′ north. It contains about 90,000 sq. miles of surface. Different derivations of the name are given. On the Austrian coast it has a number of small islands, and forms many bays, the most remarkable of which are those of Trieste, Quarnaro and Cattaro. It is called the gulf of Venice from the city of this name, which formerly claimed exclusive dominion over this sea, and in those times annually wedded it on Ascension Day. The ceremony was performed by the doge of Venice throwing a ring into the sea with great pomp. The entrance of the gulf is commanded by Corfu, one of the Ionian islands under the British government. The coast of the A. sea is, in many places, very dangerous. The most important ports on the gulf are Venice (since 1829 a free port), Trieste, Ancona, Otranto, &c.

ADULE; ADULIAN MARBLE. Adule, a city in Ethiopia, mentioned by ancient authors as the most important commercial place of the Troglodytes and Ethiopians, in later times the emporium of Axum, seems to be the same with the modern Arkiko. This city, now the residence of the Naib of Massuah, is frequently mentioned on account of an inscription, first copied in the Topographia Christiana, a work partly theological, partly geographical, written by Cosmas Indicopleustes, in the 6th century, under the reign of the emperor Justin. The inscription, engraved on marble, is contained in part on a throne, the remainder on a stone separated from it, and there are many inconsistencies in the several fragments, which have induced some scholars to declare the inscription spurious. Besides the genealogy of Ptolemy Euergetes, it contains on a second part, which Salt supposes to be of Axumitic, that is, of Ethiopic or Abyssinian origin, the catalogue of nations whom some king boasts to have subdued. Buttmann (in Wolf's Museum der Alterthumskunde, vol. 2, p. 105) has removed the difficulties arising from the date on the marble, which is the 27th year of the reign of a king, whose name is unknown, probably not Ptolemy Euergetes. Several things, however; remain to be explained, and require a more accurate knowledge than we have at pres

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ent of the country where the inscription was found.

ADULTERY. Mankind, in almost all ages, and in all civilized countries, have regarded the violation of the marriage-bed with abhorrence. It has been punished in various ways and with different degrees of severity, according to the general manners and morals of the country; sometimes with extreme and even cruel rigor; in other instances, with capricious and ridiculous penalties. By the Jewish law, it was punished with death. Strabo says the same was the case in Arabia Felix. Among the ancient Egyptians, it was not common, but when it did occur, a thousand lashes were inflicted on the man, and the woman was deprived of her nose. In Greece, the laws against it were severe. The rich were sometimes allowed to redeem themselves by paying a fine; in which case, the woman's father returned the dower which he had received from the husband. Some suppose it was refunded by the adulterer. A frequent punishment there, was putting out the eyes. According to Homer, adulterers were stoned to death. By the laws of Draco and Solon, adulterers, when caught in the act, were at the mercy of the injured party. Adulteresses were prohibited, in Greece, from appearing in fine garments and entering the temples. Some suppose that this offence was made capital by a law of Romulus, and again by the twelve tables; others, that it was first made capital by Augustus; and others, not till the reign of Constantine. The fact is, that the punishment was left to the discretion of the husband and parents of the adulteress. The most usual mode of taking revenge was by mutilating, castrating, or cutting off the ears or nose. The punishment assigned by the lex Julia de adulteris, instituted by Augustus, was banishment or a heavy fine. It was decreed by Antoninus, that, to sustain a charge of adultery against a wife, the husband who brought it must be innocent himself. Under Macrinus, adulterers were burned at a stake. Under Constantius and Constans, they were burned or sewed in sacks and thrown into the sea. But the punishment was mitigated under Leo and Marcian to perpetual banishment, or cutting off the nose; and under Justinian the wife was only to be scourged, lose her dower, and be shut up in a monastery; at the expiration of two years, the husband might take her again; if he refused, she was shaven, and made a nun for life. Theodosius instituted the

shocking practice of public constupration, which, however, he soon abolished. In Crete, adulterers were covered with wool, as an emblem of their effeminacy, and carried in that dress to the magistrate's house, where a fine was imposed on them, and they were deprived of all their privileges and their share in public business. The punishment in use among the Mingrelians is the forfeiture of a hog, which is usually eaten very amicably by the woman, the gallant and the cuckold. In some parts of India, it is said, that any woman may prostitute herself for an elephant, and it is reputed no small glory to have been rated so high. Adultery is stated to be extremely frequent at Ceylon, although punishable with death. Among the Japanese and some other nations, adultery is punishable only in the woman. Among the Abyssinians, the crime of the husband is punished on the innocent wife. On the contrary, in the Marian islands, the woman is not punishable, but the man is, and the wife and her relations waste his lands, burn him out of the house, &c. Among the Chinese, adultery is not capital; fond parents will even make a contract with the future husbands of their daughters, to allow them the indulgence of a gallant. In Portugal, an adulteress is condemned to the flames, but the punishment is seldom executed. By the ancient laws of France, this crime was punishable with death. In Spain, the crime was punished by the deprivation of the instrument. In Poland, previously to the establishment of Christianity, the criminal was carried to the market-place, and there fastened by the testicles with a nail; a razor was laid within his reach, and he had the option to execute justice on himself, or remain where he was and die. The Saxons consigned the adulteress to the flames, and over her ashes erected a gibbet, on which her paramour was hanged. King Edmund the Saxon ordered adultery to be punished in the same manner as homicide, and Canute the Dane ordered that the offender should be banished, and the woman have her ears and nose cut off. In the time of Henry I, it was punished with the loss of the eyes and the genitals. Adultery is, in England, considered a spiritual offence, cognizable by the spiritual courts, where it is punished by fine and penance. The common law allows the party aggrieved only an action and damages. The Mahommedan code pronounces adultery a capital offence. It is one of the three crimes which the prophet

directs to be expiated by the blood of a Mussulman. In France, before the revolution, an adulteress was usually condemned to a convent, where the husband could visit her during two years, and take her back if he saw fit. If he did not choose to receive her again by the expiration of this time, her hair was shaven, she took the habit of the convent, and remained there for life. Where the parties were poor, the wife might be shut up in a hospital instead of a convent. The Code Napoléon does not allow the husband to proceed against his wife for adultery, in case he has been condemned for the same offence. The wife can bring an action against the husband only in case he has introduced his paramour into the house where she resides. An adulteress can be imprisoned from three months to two years. The husband can prevent the execution of the sentence, if he sees fit to take her back. Her partner in guilt is liable to the same punishment. In the United States, the punishment of adultery has varied materially at different times. In the state of Massachusetts, an adulterer or adulteress may be set on the gallows for one hour, be publicly whipped, be imprisoned or fined. All or any of these punishments may be inflicted, according to the degree of the offence. Corporal punishment and exposure, however, are in that state always commuted into imprisonment and labor. Moreover, adultery is very seldom punished criminally in the United States.

ADVENT (from the Latin adventus, i. e. adventus Redemptoris) signifies the coming of our Savior. The name is applied to the holy season which occupies the 4 or 6 weeks preceding Christmas. The Roman Catholics spend this season in fasting, humiliation and prayer, as if preparing for the reception of the Savior of the world. This holy season is first mentioned by Maximus Laurinensis, a divine, in one of his homilies, written in the middle of the 5th century, but is supposed to have been instituted by St. Peter. No nuptials could be celebrated in Advent, since the council held at Lerida, in the 6th century, in order that Christians might more frequently partake in the Lord's supper..

ADVENTURE, bill of; in commerce, a writing signed by a merchant, to testify that the goods shipped on board a certain vessel belong to another person, who is to take the hazard, the subscriber signing only to oblige himself to account to him for the produce.

ADVENTURE ISLAND; a small island in the S. Pacific ocean; lon. 144° 18′ W.; lat. 17° 5' S. There is also an Adventure Bay, on the S. E. coast of New Holland; lon. 147° 29′ E.; lat. 43° 21′ S.

ADVENTURERS, the society of; an ancient company of merchants, erected for the discovery of unknown regions, opening new channels of trade, &c. It originated in Burgundy, and was established by John, duke of Brabant, in 1248, for the encouragement of English and other merchants at Antwerp. It was afterwards confirmed in England by Edward III and IV, Richard III, Henry IV, V, VI and VII; and by patent of the last-mentioned monarch, in 1505, they received the title merchant adventurers. The influence of the English merchant adventurers at Antwerp was, in 1550, so great, that they were able to resist successfully the establishment of the inquisition in that city.

ADVOCATE OF THE CROWN; STATE ADVOCATE. The institution of crown advocates or public attorneys (ministère public), which is found in almost all modern systems of government, has been no where so well regulated as in France. The separation of the office of judge from every other has been there completed, which is not only indispensable on principles of general constitutional law, but also desirable, that the people may see in the judiciary judges only, and not men who, by virtue of their office, are obliged to take care of the interests of the state and the government, and who, when these interests are in question, must be necessarily, at the same time, both party and judge. It is not sufficient that the judge be personally conscious of impartiality; he should be so situated, that no particular effort should be required to attain it. Those who appear before the judge should have no occasion to doubt it. It must be considered as a particular defect in criminal proceedings, if the judge is obliged, by his office, to occupy the place of accuser, as he must necessarily appear to be the adversary of the accused persons. To avoid these inconveniences, the office of public advocate was established in France in early times, and constituted an essential part of the establishment for the administration of justice. It has given to the whole class of advocates higher honor and consideration. This institution originated in those times when the modern constitution of the courts began to develope itself, by means of permanent sessions of the parliaments, and through the agency of per

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manent members of these bodies, who were versed in the law. This period was about the beginning of the 14th century; for, although the kings of the Merovingian and Carlovingian dynasties had their advocates (procuratores or actores regis), these were only officers appointed for the collection of the revenue; and the office of the crown advocate did not acquire greater authority until the highest court of law of the hereditary possessions of the line of Capet (the parliament of Paris) had attained a permanent session in that capital. As early as 1356, the procureur général appears making a complaint against the city of Tournay, which had maintained an asylum for the protection of notorious murderers, and proposed the abolition of a usage so contrary to the principles of justice. Every thing which related to public order, the rights of the crown, and the general welfare, was placed under the cognizance of these officers, who, as the president Henrion de Pansey says (De l'autorité judiciare en France, ch. 12, p. 185), have rendered incalculable services to the crown and to the people. In every supreme court of the realm (the parliaments), and in the cours souveraines, which were substantially equal to them, and in the chambres des comptes, the cours des aides, &c. a procureur général was appointed, who was the soul of the institution, the representative of the king and state in the court. In his name were made all motions in the court; al though the first avocat général took pre cedence of him in rank, and though, in some cases, he was bound by the major ity of voices, and the avocats généraux who stood next to him had the exclusive privilege of arguing orally at the sessions of the court, wherein they were entirely independent of the procureur général. In the same rank with the procureur général stood one or more avocats généraux, and under them were certain substitutes. The business was not apportioned among them every where in the same manner, but was arranged in each tribunal by peculiar regulations; but, as a common rule, the same distinction existed between them which generally prevailed in France between the orders of avocats and procureurs, assigning to the latter that part in the management of a cause which was performed in writing, and to the former, the oral argument. Under the crown advocates belonging to the highest courts were the procureurs du roi, and there was no court in France, in which such an officer was not appointed, excepting

only the conseil du roi, and the commercial courts. Even in the feudal courts, the lord had a similar officer under the name of procureur fiscal. The sphere of action of the state advocates, as is evident from the nature of the institution, was very extensive and important. 1. It comprehended every thing that related to the royal domains and the public property; and this part of their duties, which gave origin to the whole institution, farnishes now, in other countries, almost the only business of these advocates. The fiscal, in most of the German states, has been confined almost entirely to the representation and defence of the public property and the state treasury in the courts; of the other branch of the official duties of the French crown advocate, viz. the prosecution of crimes, only such portion has been assigned to the German fiscal as consists in the support and defence of the legal prerogative and fiscal rights, and in the collection of the fiscal fines. 2. The crown advocate in France, in all criminal proceedings, occupied the station of public prosecutor, and appeared as a party against the accused. To him was assigned the duty of instituting the proceedings in criminal cases, of procuring evidence, of replying to the defence, and finally of introducing the motions for punishment. By this means, the office of judge was, in most respects, established on correct principles, and relieved from the double and often inconsistent duty of taking care as well of the accusation as of the defence. In France, the judges have only to decide correctly on the motions of the parties. 3. In the old constitution of France, as well as in Germany, the departments of the police and the judiciary were in the same hands. In the exercise of power by the courts, as heads of the police, the crown advocates bore an important part. No police ordinance could be issued before the procureur général had been heard thereupon; in fact, they were usually proposed by him. 4. The ordinances of the king, both those of a public and those of a private character, including pardons, promotions, &c., were published and carried into effect by entry on the records of the courts. Such entries, which, it is well known, often met with opposition, could be made only on the motion of the crown advocate. 5. It was the duty of this officer to watch over the execution of the laws, particularly in the courts themselves. Wherever the state advocate observed any violation or neglect of legal rules, he took measures for

the correction of the abuse. 6. It was his duty, moreover, to preserve good order in the court to which he was attached. He had no authority, indeed, to correct irregularities himself, but could make a motion to the court for this purpose, who were bound to deliberate thereupon. He could also make report of the fact to the higher authorities. To carry into effect this part of his duty, it was provided that, every half year, on the first Wednesday after the vacation of the courts, a session should be held with closed doors (originally on the first Wednesday of every month), at which the procureur général should report all the delinquencies which he had observed in the public and private conduct of the judges, advocates and inferior procureurs. These reports, as they were made on Wednesday, were called Mercurials, and, to give them more weight, they were sent to the chancellor of France. The avocat général was also accustomed, at the first session of the court after the vacation, to deliver a discourse on some important point of the official duties of the judge or advocate, by which many of them, e. g. D'Aguesseau, have greatly distinguished themselves. 7. To the duties of the state advocates also belonged the support of the authority of the court to which they were attached; and, 8. The representation of all corporations and persons or things placed under the especial guardianship of the state, viz. the church, charitable institutions, ecclesiastical societies, congregations, minors, insane persons, notorious spendthrifts and absent persons. Whenever the interest of such persons or corporations came in question, it was necessary that the state advocate should be consulted and heard. Officers with such powers could not be treated as subordinate to the courts. In point of fact, the procureur général stood in the same rank with the president of the courts; and as his office, like the others connected with the administration of justice, was venal, extravagant sums were sometimes paid for it. The celebrated minister of finance under Louis XIV, Nicholas Fouquet, sold his office of first avocat général in the parliament of Paris, for 1,400,000 livres. The procureurs généraux and avocats généraux had also the same official dresses as the presidents; these were long, black, and, on solemn occasions, scarlet robes, square caps, &c. The revolution has made many changes in this institution. Its circle of official duties has been narrowed, but, on the other hand, it has gained in unity, connexion