vations in the upper regions of the atmosphere. But should we ever learn to guide the balloon at will, it might, perhaps, be employed for purposes of which we now have hardly an idea; possibly the plan of professor Robertson might be accomplished by the construction of a gigantic balloon, which would enable us to perform an aerial circumnavigation of the earth. During the French revolution, an aërostatic institution was founded at Meudon, not far from Paris, for the education of a corps of aeronauts, with the view of introducing balloons into armies as a means of reconnoitring the enemy. But this use of balloons was soon laid aside, for, like every other, it must be attended with great uncertainty, as long as the machine has to obey the wind. Among the French, Blanchard and Garnerin have undertaken the greatest number of aerial voyages; among the Germans, professor Jungius, in Berlin, in 1805 and 1806, made the first. Since that time, professor Reichard and his wife have become known by their aërial excursions. Even in Constantinople, such a voyage was performed, at the wish and expense of the sultan, by two Englishmen, Barly and Devigne. Blanchard has rendered an essential service to aeronauts by the invention of the parachute, which they can use, in case of necessity, to let themselves down without danger. Many attempts have been made to regulate the course of balloons, by means of oars, wings, &c., but hitherto with little

success.

AEROSTATION, OF AEROSTATICS, is the science of weighing air, either by itself or with other substances. Since the invention of the balloon, this term has been sometimes applied to the art of managing balloons, which is more properly called aeronautics, (q. v.)

ESCHINES; a famous orator of Athens; born 393, died 323, B. C. Being the son of poor parents, he passed his youth among the lower classes, with whom he wandered about, partaking in their amusements, particularly in the festivals in honor of Bacchus. Encouraged by their applause, he became an actor, acquired the right of citizenship, engaged in politics, attended the lectures of Plato and Isocrates, and soon became the rival of Demosthenes, whom, however, he did not equal in power and energy, although he was distinguished by a happy choice of words, and by richness and perspicuity of ideas. He gradually lost the favor of the people, and fled to Rhodes and Samos, where he

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gave instruction in rhetoric till his death. Three orations and twelve letters of his are extant. They are to be found in the collections of Aldus, Stephanus and Reiske, (3d and 4th vols.)

ESCHINES, the philosopher, a native of Athens, who, by way of distinction from the preceding, is called the Socratic, was a poor disciple of Socrates. We possess under his name three dialogues, "On Virtue," "On Riches," and "On Death," which, however, are not allowed by strict critics to be genuine. The best edition is that of I. F. Fischer, Leipsic, 1786.

ÆSCHYLUS; the father of ancient Greek tragedy; born in the 3d or 4th year of the 63d Olympiad (525 B. C.), at Eleusis, in Attica, of a noble family." Of the circumstances of his life we have but deficient and uncertain accounts. He fought in the battles of Marathon and Salamis, witnessed the destruction of the power of Darius and Xerxes, and wrote his tragedies under the proud feeling of a successful struggle for liberty. In these he first raised the tragical art from the rude beginnings of Thespis to a dignified character, so that he may be considered as its real creator. Tragedy sprang from his head in full armor (says A. W. Schlegel), like Pallas from the head of Jupiter. He clothed it with becoming dignity, and gave it an appropriate place of exhibition; he invented scenic pomp, and not only instructed the chorus in singing and dancing, but appeared himself in the character of a player. He first perfected the dialogue, and reduced the lyrical part of the tragedy, which still, however, occupies too much space in his plays. His characters are sketched with a few bold and strong features; his plots are extremely simple, but grand. His art knew nothing of intrigues and developements. All his poetry reveals a lofty and ardent mind. Not the softer emotions, but terror is his ruling characteristic. He holds up the head of Medusa to the overawed spectators. His manner of treating fate is terrible in the extreme; in all its gloomy majesty it hovers over mortals. The Cothurnus of Eschylus is of an iron weight; none but giant figures stride in it. It appears to have required an effort in him to represent mere men. He deals commonly with gods, especially the Titans, those elder deities, the symbols of the dark primitive powers of nature, long since cast down to Tartarus. In accordance with the grandeur of his figures, he endeavors to make their language gigantic.

Thence arise harsh expressions, overloaded with epithets, and frequently, in his chorus, intricate constructions and great obscurity. In the daring grandeur of his images and expressions, he resembles Dante and Shakspeare. We have only 7 of his tragedies remaining: their whole number is stated to have been 70; according to some, 90; but among these, according to the testimony of the ancients, we have some of his principal works. They are, "The Prometheus Vinctus," "The Seven before Thebes," "The Persians," ""Agamemnon," "The Choëphora," "The Eumenides," and "The Suppliants." Disgusted at seeing inferior pieces preferred to his own, and particularly at the victory of the young Sophocles, or, according to the more probable account, compelled by an accusation of atheism, Eschylus left his native country, and went to Sicily, where he was received with great honors by king Hiero, and died 456 B. C., at the age of 70 years. The best editions of his works are, London, 1663 and 1664, folio, by Stanley; Hague, in 1745, 2 vols. quarto, by Paw; and Halle, 1809 to 1821, 5 vols. 3d edition by Schütz. Single plays have been published by Brunck, Herrmann, Blomfield, and others.

ESCULAPIUS; the god of medicine. Some writers call him a son of Apollo and Arsinoë, daughter of Leucippus; others, of Apollo and Coronis, daughter of Phlegyas. There are also different accounts of the wonders which befell his infancy. According to some, he was exposed by his mother, suckled by a goat, found by shepherds, and his divine nature recognised by a glittering halo round his head: according to others, Coronis having admitted the embraces of Ischys as well as those of Apollo, the latter, in a fit of anger (or Diana in his stead), killed Coronis, but saved the child from her womb. The last opinion was the most common, and was confirmed by the Pythian oracle. Apollo afterwards brought his son to Chiron, who instructed him in medicine and hunting. In the former he acquired a high degree of skill, so as to surpass even the fame of his teacher. He not only prevented the death of the living, but even recalled the dead to life. Jupiter, however, induced by the complaints of his brother Pluto, slew Æ. with a thunderbolt. After his death, he received divine honors. In particular, he was worshipped at Epidaurus in Peloponnesus, (see Argolis), where a temple with a grove was dedicated to him. From the

accurate register here kept of the most remarkable diseases and their remedies, the greatest physicians gathered experience and knowledge. Thence his worship spread over all Greece, and finally to Rome. After the plague had raged there for three years, ambassadors were sent to Esculapius at Epidaurus by the advice of the Delphian Apollo. They had hardly appeared before the god, when a serpent crept from beneath his image, and hastened directly to the Roman ship. This serpent, which was thought to be Esculapius himself, was carried with great solemnity to Rome, upon which the plague ceased. Esculapius had two sons, Machaon and Podalirius, who were called Asclepiades, and during the Trojan war made themselves famous as heroes and physicians. His daughters were Hygeia, Iaso, Panacea and Ægle, the first of whom was_worshipped as the goddess of health. Esculapius is represented with a large beard, holding a knotty staff, round which was entwined a serpent, the symbol of convalescence. Near him stands the cock, the symbol of watchfulness. He is sometimes crowned with the laurel of Apollo. Sometimes his little son Telesphorus is represented beside him, with a cap upon his head, wrapped up in a cloak. Sometimes Esculapius is represented under the image of a serpent only. Æsop;

the oldest Greek fabulist. He is said to have been a native of Phrygia, and a slave, till he was set free by his last owner. He lived about the middle of the 6th century B. C. He inculcated rules of practical morality, drawn from the habits of the inferior creation, and thus spread his fame through Greece and all the neighboring countries. Crœsus, king of Lydia, invited Æsop to his court, and kept him always about his person. Indeed, he was never absent, except during his journeys to Greece, Persia and Egypt. Croesus once sent him to Delphi to offer a sacrifice to Apollo; while engaged in this embassy, he wrote his fable of the Floating Log, which appeared terrible at a distance, but lost its terrors when approached. The priests of Delphi, applying the fable to themselves, resolved to take vengeance on the author, and plunged him from a precipice. Planudes, who wrote a miserable romance, of which he makes Esop the hero, describes him as excessively deformed and disagreeable in his appearance, and given to stuttering; but this account does not agree with what his contemporaries say of him.

The stories related of Æsop, even by the ancients, are not entitled to credit. A collection of fables made by Planudes, which are still extant under the name of the Grecian fabulist, are ascribed to him with little foundation; their origin is lost in the darkness of antiquity. Of the early editions, the most valuable are those by Henry Stephens, Paris, 1546, 4to.; and by Hudson, Oxford, 1718. More lately, they have been published from the manuscript, in a very different form, by De Furia, 2 vols., Florence, 1809, and Leipsic, 1810; Coray, Paris, 1810; and Schneider, Breslau, 1811. These fables have had numberless imitators.

ESOPUS, Clodius, a celebrated actor, who flourished about the 670th year of Rome. He was a contemporary of Roscius. His folly in spending money on expensive dishes made him as conspicuous as his dramatic talents. He is said, at one entertainment, to have had a dish filled with singing and speaking birds, which cost £800. When acting, he entered into his part to such a degree as sometimes to be seized with a perfect ecstasy. Plutarch mentions it as reported of him, that, whilst he was representing Atreus, deliberating how he should revenge himself on Thyestes, he was so transported beyond himself, that he smote with his truncheon one of the servants who was crossing the stage, and killed him on the spot.

AESTHETICS (from the Greek aloŋois, perception); the science which treats of the beautiful, and of the various applications of its principles. Baumgarten, a professor in the university at Frankfort on the Oder, first used this name, and intended to designate by it a branch of philosophy, which should establish correct principles of criticism in relation to the beautiful. Since the time of Baumgarten, this word has been used in Germany, France, and Italy, and has lately been employed by some English writers. For the character of the science, and the attention which it has received, see Philosophy. ETHER; an extremely fine, subtile and elastic fluid, which philosophers have supposed to be diffused throughout the universe, and by means of which they have explained many of the great phenomena of nature. It is mentioned by Aristotle. Its existence cannot be proved. Newton believed in it, and explains by it the connexion of the parts of a body, and the laws of gravity. Euler asserts that æther is almost 39,000,000 times thinner, and 1,278 times more elastic, than atmospheric air.

ETHER; in chemistry. (See Ether.)
ETHIOPIA. (See Ethiopia.)
ETHRA. (See Theseus.)

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ETIUS; one of the most zealous defenders of Arianism, born in Syria, flourished about 336, and his followers were called Etians.

ETNA (in Italian, monte Gibello); the famous volcanic mountain on the eastern coast of Sicily, not far from Catania. This mountain rises more than 10,000 feet above the surface of the sea; Buffon thinks, 2000 fathoms; Saussure gives 10,963 feet, Spallanzani 11,400, and sir G. Shuckburgh 10,954. Its circumference at the base is 180 miles. On its sides are 77 cities, towns and villages, containing about 115,000 inhabitants. From Catania to the summit the distance is 30 miles, and the traveller must pass through three distinct climates the hot, the temperate and the frigid. Accordingly, the whole mountain is divided into three distinct regions, called the fertile region (regione culta), the woody region (regione selvosa), and the barren region (regione deserta). The lowest region extends through an ascent of from 12 to 18 miles. The city of Catania and several villages are situated in the first zone, which abounds in pastures, orchards, and various kinds of fruit-trees. Its great fertility is ascribed chiefly to the decomposition of lava; it is perhaps owing, in part, to cultivation. The figs and fruits in general, in this region, are reckoned the finest in Sicily. The lava here flows from a number of small mountains, which are dispersed over the immense declivity of Etna. The woody region, or temperate zone, extends from 8 to 10 miles in a direct line towards the top of the mountain; it comprehends a surface of about 40 or 45 square leagues, and forms a zone of the brightest green all round the mountain, exhibiting a pleasing contrast to its white and hoary head. It is called la regione selvosa, because it abounds in oaks, beeches and firs. The soil is similar to that of the lower region. The air here is cool and refreshing, and every breeze is loaded with a thousand perfumes, the whole ground being covered with the richest aromatic plants. Many parts of this region are the most delightful spots upon earth, and have inspired ancient and modern poets with images of beauty and loveliness. The animal kingdom of these two regions is not equal in point of richness to the vegetable. The upper or barren region is marked out by a circle of snow and ice. Its surface is, for

the most part, flat, and the approach to it is indicated by the decline of vegetation, by uncovered rocks of lava and heaps of sand, by near views of an expanse of snow and ice, and of torrents of smoke issuing from the crater of the mountain, also by the difficulty and danger of advancing amidst streams of melted snow, sheets of ice, and gusts of chilling winds. The curious traveller, however, thinks himself amply rewarded, upon gaining the summit, for the peril which he has encountered. The number of stars seems increased, and their light appears brighter than usual; the lustre of the milky way is like a pure flame that shoots across the heavens; and with the naked eye we may observe clusters of stars totally invisible in the lower regions. The scoriæ, of which the mountain is composed, have the same kind of base, containing schorl and feldspar. The first eruption of which we have any authentic account, is mentioned by Diodorus Siculus. The last eruption took place in 1819. It appears very probable that mount Etna is exhausting its volcanic powers, as the eruptions of modern times are by no means so frequent as in former ages, nor are they so tremendous in their extent and effects. Before the Christian æra, there were 9 eruptions, of which those in 477 and 121 B. C. are the most important: after Christ, the most important are those in 1160, 1169, 1329, 1536, 1537, 1669, 1693, 1763, 1787, 1792, 1802, 1809, 1811, 1819. Mount Etna supplies Sicily and a large part of Italy, and even Malta, with the luxury of snow and ice. The trade in these articles belongs to the bishop of Catania, who, as it is stated, makes from 3000 to 4000 dollars per annum by it. The vegetation of the woody region is exceedingly luxuriant. There is one chestnut tree, under which 100 horses may be sheltered against the sun; it therefore is called dei cento cavalli. (See Denon's Voyage pittoresque en Sicile, vol. 4., and Alexander von Humboldt's Personal Narrative.) Since 1824, Catania has had the Gioenian Academy (so called in honor of the chevalier Giuseppe Gioeni, author of a Litologia Vesuviana), the object of which is to investigate the topography and natural history of Ætna.

ETOLIA; a country in Greece, on the northern coast of the Corinthian gulf; so called from Ætolus, the brother of Epeus, king of Elis, who, escaping from Elis, made himself master of this region. Ancient Etolia was separated from Acarnania by the river Achelöus, and extended thence to Calydon, or to the river

Evenus. On the south lay the gulf of Corinth, and Thessaly on the north. Its extent from north to south was about 48 miles, and from east to west above 20. It was subsequently enlarged by successful wars. The additions were comprehended under the name of Etolia Epictelos. The borders of Etolia on the north were now mount Eta and the Athamanes in Epirus. Thermopyla, Heraclea, and a great part of Thessaly also belonged to it. On the east, Doris and the coast as far as Naupactus and Eupalion were added to it. The country was rough and unfruitful, but strong by reason of its mountains. According to Herodotus and Aristotle, lions infested Æ. in the most ancient times. The original ancestors of the Etolians were Hellenes. Divided into small tribes, they had no principal city; they were occupied in hunting and robbery, and made themselves feared both on land and sea. In their state of independence, they preserved for a long time their ancient rudeness of manners. They very early formed the great Ætolian confederacy, which assembled once a year at Therma, but first became remarkable in the time of the Achæan league. To oppose this confederacy they united with the Romans; and afterwards deserted them, on perceiving that their freedom was in danger from their allies. They then went over to the side of the Macedonians, with whom they were obliged at last to submit to the Roman yoke. The government of E. was republican, controlled by the Panœtolium, a general council, held as occasion required. Livy says that their cavalry was at one period esteemed superior to that of any other of the Grecian states.

AFFA; a weight on the Gold Coast of Guinea, equal to one ounce.

AFFINITY; in chemistry. When two bodies are brought in contact with each other, they will often, without the sensible operation of any extraneous influences, combine by a spontaneous and reciprocal action, and form new bodies with different properties; a single body, modified by the action of the natural agents, caloric, electricity, &c. sometimes produces the same results; finally, a body not apparently acted upon by other bodies, nor by the natural agents, sometimes acquires new properties, and assumes new forms. These changes in the chemical character of bodies are produced by a force, to which we give the name of affinity Some of the laws or modes of action of this force are, that it is exerted only at

insensible distances, which distinguishes it from gravitation (see Attraction), and between heterogeneous particles, in which it differs from cohesion (q. v.) The properties of the resulting compound differ essentially from its component parts, as a salt is formed by an acid and an alkali. The forms of the elements are often changed, and the change is attended with remarkable phenomena, as the explosion of gunpowder by its conversion into gases, the solidification of water in slaking lime, &c. One of the most important laws of affinity is, that one body has not the same force of affinity towards all others, but attracts them very unequally, and some of them not at all. The knowledge of the affinities of different bodies is of great use to the chemist in effecting decompositions. Bergmann, who first, in 1775, developed the theory of affinities, distinguishes three cases in the reciprocal action of two bodies-when they are both free, which he calls simple affinity; when one of them is already in combination, elective; and when both are combined in different compounds, complex. Berthollet has much improved the theory of affinities. (See Berthollet's Statique chimique, and Berzelius' Theory of chemical Proportions.)

AFFINITY, in law, is that degree of connexion, which subsists between one of two married persons and the blood relations of the other. It is no real kindred. A person cannot, by legal succession, receive an inheritance from a relation by affinity; neither does it extend to the nearest relations of husband and wife, so as to create a mutual relation between them. The degrees of affinity are computed in the same way as those of consanguinity, or blood. By the Jewish law, marriage was prohibited within certain degrees. Nearly the same limitations are adopted into the laws of Europe and America. All legal impediments, arising from affinity, cease upon the death of the husband or wife, excepting, of course, those which relate to the marriage of the survivor. The table of forbidden degrees of affinity is, by the ecclesiastical law of England, commanded to be hung up in all churches. The Roman church speaks of spiritual affinity, which is contracted by the sacraments of baptisin and confirmation; according to which a godfather may not marry his god-daughter without a dispensation.

AFFIRMATION Signifies, in one sense, the solemn declarations of Quakers, and members of some other sects, in confir

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mation of their testimony in courts of law, or of their statements on other occasions, on which the sanction of an oath is required of other persons. The English laws did not permit affirmations instead of oaths, in criminal cases, until 1828. No distinction has been made, in any of the United States, between testimonies in civil and criminal cases in this respect, it having been permitted to Quakers generally, and, for the most part, to other persons scrupulous about swearing, to give testimony upon mere solemn affirmation. Even the president of the U.S. is allowed to affirm instead of taking the usual oath, when inducted into office, if he has conscientious scruples about swearing. The privilege of affirmation is allowed in Prussia only to sects recognised by government, and whose principles do not permit them to make oath. False affirmation is subjected to the same penalties as perjury in England and elsewhere.

AFFRY, Lewis Augustinus Philip, count of, first magistrate of Switzerland after Napoleon had proclaimed himself the protector of the Helvetic confederacy, was born at Freyburg, 1743. He was early destined to a military life, accompanied his father on an embassy to the Hague, soon became adjutant in the Swiss guards, and was finally elevated to the rank of lieutenant-general. At the commencement of the revolution, he com manded the army on the Upper Rhine, till Aug. 10, 1792, when, the Swiss troops having been disbanded, he returned to his country, and became a member of the secret council at Freyburg. Switzerland being menaced, in 1798, with a French invasion and a revolution, he resumed the command of the troops. He acknowledged the uselessness of resistance, conducted himself with undeviating prudence, and averted as much as possible from his country the evils of war and rebellion. When Freyburg was taken by the French, he became a member of the provisional government. He had no share in the insurrections of 1801 and 1802, but accepted with pleasure the appointment of deputy to Paris, when the first consul invited the Swiss to send delegates thither, and offered them his mediation. Napoleon distinguished him above the other deputies, and intrusted to him the formation of an administration, which was to ensure the peace and happiness of the ancient allies of France. Feb. 19, 1803, A. received from the first consul the act of mediation, was appointed first magistrate for this year, and invested with ex