preparation. In such a case one course in preparation is better than none.

It is interesting to note that courses dealing with the "Historical Geography of the United States" appear as most numerous in this specialized miscellaneous group.

Regional Distribution of Conditions

From the data submitted in the tabulation and the accompanying discussion, it is apparent that there is a great deal of variation as regards geography in normal schools and teachers colleges. Though there are some exceptions to the generalization, it appears that the schools of the middle west offer the largest number of courses and employ the greatest number of trained teachers in geography departments. In general the schools of the east are notably weak in the number of content courses offered in geography. This is more notable in the southeast than in the northeast. Very few data were received from the southern states. In the far west and southwest the schools vary greatly in size, and the work is very spotted, two schools in the same state offering in some instances very different work in geography. It must be understood that there are exceptions in varying degrees to all of the generalizations above, including such cases as schools which made no return to the enquiry or which did not have available their most recent catalogue showing improved conditions.

SUGGESTIONS AS TO CAUSES FOR THE PRESENT SITUATION OF GEOGRAPHY IN TEACHERS COLLEGES

In the rapid expansion of curricula and courses in teachers colleges, it is natural that there should be incongruities and lack of equilibrium in some cases. There undoubtedly has been over-expansion as well as under-development.

With the expansion in number of courses offered there has often been a shortage of funds which has made impossible the proper expansion of the faculties. Even when faculties were expanded funds were not always available to pro

cure teachers with modern advanced training. Whether this condition is any more true in the field of geography than in other fields is a question, but it would seem to be more vital as regards geography because of the rapid evolution of that science in recent years. In most teachers colleges there seems to be a strong tendency to employ their own graduates, a practice which gives a very "ingrown" complexion to the faculty lists. This is a practice by no means confined to the teachers college field, and should not be a drawback provided sufficient work for an advanced degree were done in another institution.

In the expansion of the teachers college, much of the old has been slow to change, for the evolution of the normal school into the teachers college is still going on. Most schools for a long period will continue to give two year courses for the preparation of certain grades of teachers. The courses in geography reflect this "half and half" condition, part twoyear normal school courses and part four-year degree courses. In most cases the majority of the students are enrolled in the two-year curricula. Thus the teachers colleges are experiencing the "pains" attendant upon rapid growth.

In some instances an antiquated State Course of Study may serve as a brake on the functioning of geography in the schools of the state and in the teachers colleges as well. The problem is to bring about a revision of the course of study in question.

Coupled in point of time with this period of evolution of the teachers college has been an equally noteworthy period of evolution of the science of geography. Geography as a functioning science, dealing with the adjustment of man's activities to the natural environment, with all the potent relationships involved, has injected new life into the essential factual material which was geography. Suggested ways in which man may better adjust his activities to the natural environmental complex in which he finds himself, to his own ultimate gain, present only one phase of the functioning

modern geography. Since geography in general in this country developed as an offshoot of geology it is not strange that in some cases great emphasis is put upon the geologic elements of the natural environment.

Under the conditions briefly outlined, it is small wonder that geography in teachers colleges should present a sort of "crazy quilt" appearance to the observer. A survey of the college and university field would undoubtedly show a similar condition to exist there. It was with the purpose of directing the attention of geographers to the situation that this study was undertaken. It is only by isolating to a degree the elements of the problem that the situation can be understood, and solutions motivated.

CONSTRUCTIVE SUGGESTIONS DEALING WITH GEOGRAPHY

IN TEACHERS COLLEGES

I. Some sort of unity of understanding is desirable as to what constitutes modern geography. This does not necessarily involve the indorsement of any particular definition of geography. It does involve a concept of geography as a functioning science which makes a real contribution to the welfare of mankind. A thorough-going defensible philosophy is one of the first essentials in the equipment of the geography teacher at any level of instruction.

II. It is desirable, as an outgrowth of a sound philosophy, that introductory courses be developed which make available to students a geography which is constantly functioning to promote the better adjustment of man's activities to his natural environment. Such a geography should make so vital and valuable a contribution that it would become in a relatively short time a required subject in most of the curricula of all teacher training institutions. This stage has already been attained to a degree in some institutions, but should become general. In most institutions departmental strength in the long run hinges largely upon the contribution made by the introductory course offered.

III. It is desirable, in order to hasten the development

of modern introductory courses in geography, as well as to advance the teaching of geography in general in the teachers college field, to develop and facilitate co-operation among teachers at this level.

IV. It would seem to follow that at least one professionalized content course should precede the methods course or courses offered in the teaching of geography in the teachers college field. The present tendency toward one course covering the whole field of technique in teaching geography, under which the various special methods in vogue are considered in proper perspective, should be encouraged.

V. It is desirable that the teachers college, in geography and other fields, should never lose sight of the fact that its business is to prepare teachers. The university departments that prepare teachers for the normal school and teachers college field would do well to keep this point in mind.

VI. Finally, it is desirable that the teachers colleges and normal schools assume the responsibility which rightfully belongs to them, and take the leadership in making a modern functioning geography available to the great mass of teachers in the field.

Sunset in the Land of Lakes

Streak of rose and rift of silver,
Cloud ship of the sunset hue,
Furl your splendor-sail; take haven
For the night in harbor blue.

Aftermath

Windblown and beaten, at intervals still shaken
By the fitful, quivering sobs of one who has wept
In the passion that only a helpless rebellion can waken,
The petulant storm-child slept.

OLGA ACHTENHAGEN.

Factors Determining a Child's Moral

Standards

C. G. WRENN, OREGON NORMAL SCHOOL, MONMOUTH, OREGON. ⠀⠀⠀⠀⠀⠀⠀⠀⠀⠀⠀HARACTER-EDUCATION as a responsibility

C

of the public school system is becoming increasingly evident as an educational problem. Educators find themselves ranged in all degrees between the extreme position on the one hand of Dr. Henry Suzallo, who stated in a recent address before the Washington State Teachers Association that the school was responsible only for the intellectual training of the child and that character education belonged to the province of home and church; and the position on the other hand, of Professor W. W. Charters whose recent book1 gives specific directions for character education in the school.

One of the phases of this highly involved problem is that of determining the factors that influence a child's moral standards. That a definite relationship exists between a child's moral standards, his intelligence rating and certain home conditions has been objectively indicated by a research project carried on by the writer some months ago and recently revised. The conclusions need several cycles of re-testing and at present may serve only as a working hypothesis of what relationships actually exist.

The major difficulty in a problem of this kind, i. e., determining the influences that shape a child's moral standards, is the formulation of a test that will indicate what a child's moral standards actually are. Correspondence with a number of men who are working in this field brought little results except from Professor E. D. Starbuck, chairman of the Iowa Committee winning the Character Education Institution's

1 Charters, W. W., "The Teaching of Ideals," The Macmillan Company, New York, 1928.