substitutes its own attitudes for the object. The will makes itself independent of "external" objects by willing itself. It becomes transcendental. This is the language of emotion. of sentiment. It is the language of introversion.

This is the explanation of the voluntarism of Fichte. It is not the defense reaction of Kant against the wall of objective scientific fact. It is a rationalization of the social unity necessary to protect the German nation against foreign attack. Fichte's positing of the non-ego by the ego, his doctrine of self-limitation, is no metaphysical puzzle. It is no mysterious creation. of an objective world from an a priori process of inner subjective moral activity. The technique of psychology enables us to see that Fichte's transcendental unity, his positing of an objective world as material of duty for an inner world of will, is his unconscious way of rationalizing the necessary political unity presupposed in the preparation for the war of liberation from the yoke of Napoleon. It was the hypostatization, the reification, of this inner attitude of mind which made the will in Fichte's philosophy a transcendental reality.

CHAPTER XXV

THE OBJECTIVE SCIENCES AND ETHICAL REALISM

Social tradition in western civilization since the seventeenth century has been more and more determined by the objective sciences.

The classical world of Greece and Rome which grew up around the Mediterranean was built around the ideal of form, of proportion. Formal tradition dominated all the material of life. Life was characterized by a sense of centrality.

When Columbus went beyond the Pillars of Hercules he opened up a new era. The compass introduced a new geography which shattered the world of formal tradition. Discovery and exploration supplanted acceptance of classic forms. The telescope brought about the same result in the world of astronomy. Man and the earth ceased to be the center of the universe. The seventeenth century was preeminently an age of the objective sciences. Its greatest achievements were in the field of mathematics and astronomy. And in the eighteenth century physics and chemistry regarded the world as a system of objective events in certain observable relations. These sciences not only ignored the older animistic and religious aspects of the world; they treated as irrelevant any relation of the human

subject to the observable objective world of science. In this way there arose a purely objective world, a world independent of any relation to a subjective world of mind or will. As the sun supplanted the earth as the center of the universe so matter and the physical environment supplanted human will and desire in the field of human knowledge. The will and final causes were supplanted by the objective environment and efficient causes. Men ceased to think of the world in terms of purpose and began to think in terms of mechanism. The center of thought was transferred from persons to things, from quality to quantity, from an inner centrality of will to an outer order of fact.

The industrial revolution in the nineteenth century, made possible by the invention of the steam engine, was the culmination of this realistic movement. It was this new realistic world made possible by objective science which was the occasion of the transfer of the leadership in the West from the Mediterranean world to the area of the Atlantic ocean, to England, France, Germany, and the United States. This economic realism was the outgrowth of the compass, coal, steel and iron, climate and fertility of soil. Physics and chemistry and biology made possible a new physical world. And then oil and hydro-electric power were added to coal. The gas-engine was invented. Power in the form of electrons was sent on wires through high-voltage transmission to distributing stations.

Life is no longer carried on in monasteries and chapels; it is no longer meditative and introspective. Music and the drama are detached by scientific technique from the immediate performance of the artist,

and through the press, the phonograph, the cinema, the radio, are made available to millions.

This scientific development has made possible more food and clothing, better shelter and easy transportation. There has been an overwhelming development of the material aspects of civilization. And there has been no corresponding growth of moral organization. Financial profit and economic power have become controlling motives in civilization. Exploitation of the earth's natural resources has become a central drive in life. Politics and legislation were instrumental in this economic exploitation.

This economic realism, this ethical materialism, has expressed itself in a realistic conception of education. Our industrial development has gone on improving its various forms of machines without regard to the impulses, the desires, the feelings, of the human beings who operate them. The technique of the machine, and not the mind and life of the operator of the machine, has been the chief concern. The brain, the muscles, the senses, the hands, of the workman are all lumped together as belonging to manual labor. They approach the category of the material, the physical. Work so conceived, work so disassociated from heart and mind, is limited in hours by the threat of strikes. Increasing technical and general knowledge and a continual spilling over of Christian ideals into labor philosophy, tend to set into revolt the feelings and ideas already disassociated from the routine of daily work.

On the other hand the intelligence, the scientific technique which do not belong to the "manual" workers, do belong to the administrative classes. But the old feudal

sense of public honor and responsibility, of devotion to the state as the sacred depository of religious and moral tradition, is a thing of the past. The newer ruling classes, for such they are, do not know the God of Jacob as did their fathers. Their new gods of the machine, of coal and oil, have begotten in them a new form of loyalty. These new ideals are profit and

power.

And biology has added impetus to this realistic development. It has substituted an objective for an introspectionist point of view. Biology gives us an organism in vital interaction with an environment. And psychology is built on this biological foundation. The eye is adapted to objects that emit light, the ear to objects that give sound. The hand has evolved through contact with external objects. Anger is an emotional response to things that resist the impulses of the organism. Fear is an emotional response to things harmful. Love is a response to the opposite sex. Life and mind have to do with adaptation to an environment. Mind has ceased to be introversion; it has become extroversion. In Patrick's language we have gone from a centripetal to a centrifugal mode of life. Watson would interpret mind as being a form of implicit response to objects. Mill's Utilitarianism which made goodness center in objective deeds that give pleasure was an earlier expression of this new realistic ideal.

Here we have a will which exists in connection with the responses of the organism to the environment. The will is a developed form of response to objects. It is an organization, always imperfect, of such responses. An inner mind and will apart from an objec