to that time. In their way they seek a redemption, but only for individuals or at the best for groups of friends and disciples closely connected with them."

After the death of Socrates, at the beginning of the fourth century, Athens was slowly surrendering her political leadership of the West for an even greater intellectual supremacy. In the fifth century, under the leadership of Pericles, the thought of Athens had as its prime function the organization and improvement of the civilization of the city-state. The typical Greek mind in the age of Pericles went out toward its world, toward the family, the state, the world of nature, in a positive and creative spirit. This was shown in the Doric and Ionic types of architecture, and in the statuary of the fifth century. When the mind is reorganizing its world, when it is recreating its social and material environment, it can have no doubts about itself. It knows itself to be real because it has a consciousness of power, because its ideals are being realized in objective ends. But this mental outlook on life does not exist in the fourth century. There is doubt, suspense, self-consciousness, introspection. The mind looks askance at its world. The will does not go through to the old social objectives.

It seems to be growing clearer that the elements of thought which distinguish the later more "spiritual" type of philosophy from the earlier ethnic type were imported into Greek (and Hebrew and Roman) thought from the Orient. The Pythagorean doctrine regarding number and form may have come from the Orient. This doctrine explains Plato's emphasis on mathematics. The doctrine that virtue is knowledge

is intelligible if virtue, like truth and goodness, is a pure form. Such pure knowledge is possible only in heaven when the mind is set free from the body. This Orphic doctrine that our earthly life is a fall from a purer world is certainly Oriental. The Persians regarded the sun as the source of purity. Fire, air, water, and earth mark the grades of the descent of the soul to earth. Socrates was thoroughly in earnest when he described himself as an intellectual midwife for no one, Socrates said, really lives until he is reborn. This is why Socrates at his death sends a cock to Asklepios because death will cure him of the disease of life. This is why before his death, like the swan, Apollo's bird, Socrates has clearer intuitions, being about to be freed from the prison of the body. Philosophy is a preparation for death. The function of music is to purify the soul. Socrates' insistence on the idea that no evil can come to a good man, that Anytos (or any statesman) can do him no harm, really means —although he never says so—that the state is not an essential part of himself. His contention that his friends will not bury him because they cannot catch him means that he himself is a pure form or divine idea. His daimonion, or demon, with its guiding voice, suggests the Persian idea of angels or guardian spirits. Instead of struggling to obtain knowledge, the love of knowledge seems to possess him as an ecstasy or a frenzy. This phenomenon is connected with that of his demon.

Now these ideas, the fall, rebirth, purification, union with a god, a guardian spirit, that life is a dying and dying is the beginning of life, that the soul cannot be

harmed, whether they be Socratic or Platonic, or both, are, no matter what the channel was through which they came into Greek thought, decidedly Oriental ideas. And what Socrates and Plato learned from the Pythagorean and Orphic mysteries, the whole Mediterranean world could learn when Alexander's conquest opened the way between the Orient and the West. Plato has much to say about death; so have Epicurus and Lucretius. In the case of Paul and Augustine the idea of death is an obsession. Perhaps the greatest single influence in the change from the earlier ethnic ideal to the new inner empire of the "spirit" is this new influx of Oriental thought.

CHAPTER XI

DISASSOCIATION IN THE CYNICS AND THE STOICS

Antisthenes (-366? B.C.) was the favorite pupil of Socrates. He brought into strong relief a certain phase of his master's teaching. Certain things present in Socrates were reduced to a system of defense against the world. These characteristics, independence of the world through the self-sufficiency of reason, endurance, apathy, contempt of pleasure, were woven into the philosophy of Cynicism. Nothing can deprive a man of virtue which is the only good. Thought is an impregnable fortress against the world.

In Antisthenes the will definitely disassociates itself from the classical social order. A good man, Antisthenes said, is better than a relative. He expressed contempt for wealth and noble birth. He was a cosmopolite. He taught that the only true government was knowledge and not the laws of the state.

Antisthenes was opposed to even civilization itself. Civilization is artificial. It is built upon wants and desires. What is needed, however, is not control over, but independence of, wants and desires.

Like all the disciples of Socrates he remained aloof from the physical sciences. Like his master he aimed to arrive at truth through dialectic, not through the manipulation of behavior or of physical objects.

The Cynic mind was more definitely introverted than the Cyrenaic mind, for the Cynic regarded pleasure and pain as binding the mind to objects, to things. The Cynic attempted to be independent not only of things, of objects, but of pleasures and pains as well.

Diogenes, the Cynic, pupil of Antisthenes, died, tradition said, in 323 on the day of Alexander's death. At the battle of Chaeronea, in 388, Philip defeated the Athenians and Boeotians and Diogenes was carried off as a spy. As the régime of the classical citystate was passing, the individual attempted through his reason to make himself omnipotent. According to Diogenes, the individual and not the state exists; virtue is the only good, and the contempt of pleasure is the truest pleasure.

When Diogenes was asked as to the time to marry, his answer was: For the young it is not yet time to marry; for the old it is no longer the time to marry. As to the state, the sage is the only king and he illustrated his self-rule by saying that Aristotle breakfasts when it pleases Philip, Diogenes breakfasts when it pleases Diogenes. His attitude toward property corresponded to his attitude toward the family and the state. Seeing a boy drinking out of his hands, he threw away his cup. He lived without a house in order that he might be free to move about.

Zeno (336-264) as a philosopher taught in the porch at Athens. In his youth Alexander was conquering the East and opening a way for the influx of Oriental thought. The independent city-states of Athens, Sparta, and Thebes no longer existed.

Zeno was born in Citium, in Cyprus, which was in