reached Corunna: part of his forces had ombarked, when an attack took place (January 16, 1809), and the general was killed by a cannon ball.

MOORE, Thomas, was born in Dublin, in 1780. His father, a merchant of that city, spared no expense in his cducation. After having been under the tuition of Mr. Whyte, a man of taste and talent, he completed his education at Trinity college, Dublin. His classical studies being finished, he went to London, entered himself of the Temple, with a view to make the law his profession, and was called to the kar. In moments not occupied with the study of legal writers, he amused himself with translating the odes of Anacreon, which he published, with copious notes, in 1800. This version, one of the most elegant that has ever appeared in our language, met with a favorable reception, which seems to have induced him to abandon the law, and devote himself to literature. In 1801, he published a volume of poems, under the assumed name of Thomas Little, which, though they established his poetical reputation, were severely and justly censured for licentiousness; they have, however, gone through 13 or 14 editions. In 1803, he published a Candid Appeal to Public Confidence, or Considerations on the Actual and Imaginary Dangers of the present Crisis. About this time, he went to the Bermuda islands, of which, through the interest of lord Moira, he was appointed registrar; and he also visited the U. States. Of the American character he is well known to have formed a very unfavorable opinion, and that opinion he expressed in a volun which came out on his return home, in 1806; this volume bore the title of Epistles, Odes, and other Poems. Like the poeins ascribed to Little, many of those which were contained in this volume were objectionable in a moral point of view, and it was, in consequence, severely attacked by Mr. Jeffrey, then editor of the Edinburgh Review. The poet was so much offended with the critic that he challenged him, and a meeting took place; but the duel was prevented by the interference of the police; and, on the pistols being examined, it was found that the seconds, or some other persons, with a provident regard to the safety of the principals, had substituted paper pellets for bullets. This gave occasion to much laughter and many epigrams, but as both parties were known to be men of courage, their characters, in this particular, remained unimpeached. In 1808, he sent to the press Corruption

and Intolerance, two Poems, with Notes, addressed to an Englishman, by an Irishman; and in 1809, the Sceptic, a Philosophical Satire. They were succeeded, in 1810, by a Letter to the Roman Catholics of Dublin. His next production-Intercepted Letters, or the Twopenny Postbag, by Thomas Brown, the younger (1812) was eagerly perused, and 14 editions of it were printed. It lashed severely the Prince-Regent, and several of the most eminent characters of the tory party. In sparkling wit, keen sarcasm, and humorous pleasantry, it is rivalled only by another volume, entitled the Fudge Family in Paris, which issued from the press in 1818, and the hero of which is an apostate from the principles of liberty, who has become an unscrupulous supporter of court measures. In 1813, the fame of Mr. Moore was increased by the appearance of his exquisite songs to sir J. Stevenson's selection of Irish melodies. Some of these songs are among the finest specimens of poetry in the language, and their morality in general is not exceptionable; they have since been collected into one volume. In 1816, he published a Series of Sacred Songs, Duets and Trios, the music to which was composed and selected by himself and sir John Stevenson. This series forms a suitable companion to the Irish Melodies. In the following year (1817) appeared Lalla Rookh, which established his claim to be ranked among the first living British poets. For this poem he is said to have received the sum of 3000 guineas. A second poem, of an Oriental character, the Loves of the Angels, appeared in 1823; and, in the same year, the Memoirs of Captain Rock, describing the condition of Ireland. In 1827, he published the Epicurean, a Tale: in 1821, he had edited a collection of Sheridan's works (2 vols.); and in 1825 appeared his interesting, though not faultless Life of Sheridan. His Letters and Journals of Lord Byron, with Notices of his Life, contains but little matter from his own hand. His last work is Memoirs of Lord Edward Fitzgerald (2 vols. 1831.) He is now preparing a history of Ireland. Moore's distinguishing characteristics are voluptu ousness of sentiment, grace of expression, and richness of imagery. He has more wit than imagination, and more ingenuity than tenderness. Perhaps Byron's judg ment will be found to be perfectly just :-"I am convinced that he and all of us are all in the wrong. I lately took Moore's poems, and some others, and went over them, side by side with Pope's and I was

really astonished and mortified at the ineffable distance, in point of sense, learning, effect, imagination, passion, and invention, between the little queen Anne's man and us of the lower empire. Depend upon it, it is all Horace then, and Claudian now." MOORISH ARCHITECTURE. (See Architecture, vol. i, p. 342.)

MOORS; a class of the inhabitants of Western Africa, particularly of the states of Fez and Morocco. The Arabians call them medainien (mariners); they call themselves Moslem (the faithful), and are strict Mohammedans. They are of Arabian origin; they live in towns, and are employed principally in traffic. The Romans called a part of Western Africa Mauritania, and the inhabitants Moors. Their wars with the Romans are well known. This territory was afterwards under the dominion of the Vandals, whose king Genseric (429) established a powerful kingdom, which was, however, overthrown (534) by Belisarius. The Saracens (Arabians), followers of Mohammed, extended their conquests in the seventh century to this part of Africa, which was governed by a deputy of the caliph of Damascus. Subsequently (711-13) they took advantage of the disorders in the Spanish kingdom of the Visigoths to reduce that country, with the exception of a small part, under their yoke. The Spanish writers gave them the name of Moors from their residence in Mauritania. While the greatest part of Europe was sunk in barbarism, learning and the arts flourished among the Arabians in Spain, where remarkable monuments of their labors are still seen; but the division of the country among different rulers, and their dissensions, so weakened the power of the Moors, that they could no longer resist the incessant encroachments of the princes of the newly established Christian states in Spain, and were finally reduced to the possession of the kingdom of Grenada. Ferdinand the Catholic, after a ten years' war (1491), conquered this also, and thereby put an end to the dominion of the Moors in Spain, after it had lasted nearly 800 years. A part of the Moors went to Africa; most of them remained in Spain, where they were industrious, peaceful subjects, and adopted generally the external forms of Christianity. These last were called, in Spain, Moriscos. Philip II, in his ferocious zeal for Christianity, resolved upon their entire destruction. His oppressions and persecutions excited an insurrection of the Moriscos in Grenada (1571), after the suppression of which over 100 000 of

them were banished. Philip III, in the same spirit of fanaticism, completed their expulsion from the country. Nearly a million of the Moriscos emigrated to Afri ca. As they were the most ingenious and industrious inhabitants of Spain, they were a great loss to the country. Agriculture speedily fell into decay. This expulsion of the Moriscos is regarded as one of the leading causes of the decline of Spain. The History of the Reign of the Moors in Spain, by doctor Jos. Ant. Conde, is drawn from Arabian manuscripts.

MOOSE. (See Deer.)

MOOSEHEAD; a lake in Maine, the source of the east branch of Kennebec river, 80 miles north of Augusta. It is about 40 miles long, and 10 or 15 broad.

MOOSE HILLOCK; a mountain of New Hampshire, in the east part of Coventry, 14 miles east of Haverhill. It derives its name from the great number of moose formerly found upon it. According to captain Partridge, the elevation of the south peak is 4556 feet, and the north peak 4636 feet, above the level of the sea. The summit is a mass of bare granite. Snow has been found upon it in every month except July.

MORA; a game known even among the ancients, and at present much in vogue in the south of Europe. It is played by two persons. Both present, at the same time, one hand, of which some fingers are extended, or all, or none. At the same moment each of the parties calls out a number. If the number pronounced by one of the players agrees with the number of the fingers stretched out by both, he who pronounced it counts one, and lifts one finger of the unemployed hand. He who first succeeds in opening all the fingers of this hand, wins the game. It is generally played to determine who is to pay for the wine, and the like. A person unacquainted with the game finds it difficult to conceive how it can be interesting; yet you see it played with the greatest animation every where in Italy.

MORALES, Louis de, commonly called el Divino, from his having painted nothing but sacred subjects, was born at Badajoz, in 1509. His pencil is bold, his touch vigorous, yet delicate, and his pictures all have life and action. They are generally of a small size, and commonly on copper. He painted hair with peculiar ex cellence. Morales visited all the cities of Spain which contained any chef d'œuvre, and, by this indiscriminate study of differ ent masters, acquired remarkable originality of manner. He died at Badajoz, ir.

586. His works are scattered through Spain. The picture of St. Veronica, in the church of the bare-footed Trinitarians, at Madrid, is his master-piece.

MORALITY; a sort of allegorical play, so termed because it consisted of moral discourses in praise of virtue and condemnation of vice. It succeeded the Mysteries. (q. v.) The dialogues were carried on by such characters as Good Doctrine, Charity, Faith, Prudence, Discretion, Death, &c., whose discourses were of a serious cast; while the province of making merriment for the spectators descended from the Devil in the Mystery to the Vice or Iniquity of the Morality, who usually personified some bad quality, and whose successor we find in the clown or fool of the regular English drama. (See France, Literature of, division Drama.) Moralities were occasionally exhibited as late as the reign of Henry VIII, and, after various modifications, assumed the form of the Mask (q. v.), which became a favorite entertainment at the court of Elizabeth and her successor. (See Drama.)

MORAL PHILOSOPHY is the science which treats of the motives and rules of human actions, and of the ends to which they ought to be directed. The moral law is the law which governs intelligent and free beings, and which determines the character of vice and virtue. It is a natural law, independent of any human institution; a religious law, which emanates from the supreme Legislator, obligatory in itself, through the conviction which it produces, universal and immutable. The moral law revealed itself in the infancy of society. Philosophers are its expounders, not its creators. Their voice is but the echo of conscience. The first moralists confined themselves to expressing the law of duty in maxims, or to illustrating it in apologues. It needed no proof beyond a mere enunciation. Their simple precepts have been honored in all ages. Three chief causes have concurred in developing and establishing the rules of practical morality, positive laws, religious institutions, and civilization. Positive laws are only the written expression of the law of duty engraved in the human soul, with such provisions as the violence of the human passions requires to enforce its precepts. Legislators, it is true, have had in view rather the general interests of society than the interest of morality in the abstract; their punishments are proportioned to effects rather than intentions. But the common good is usually found to accord with individual duty; and men require, in

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the provisions for the public weal, an acknowledgment of the moral law. They require to be addressed in the name of justice. While civil institutions have regulated the conduct of man in society, religious institutions have penetrated into the sanctuary of conscience. Moral and religious sentiments are developed almost spontaneously, and have a natural sympathy. From its alliance with morality, religion becomes refined and elevated. Christianity has blended them in the precepts of love to God and love to man.What we call civilization, is a complex result which supposes the existence of close, extended and varied relations among men, the developement of industry, the progress of intelligence and taste, the establishment of general order, the refinement of public and private manners. It is, in part, the fruit of civil and religious institutions. Practical morality exerts a powerful influence on it, strengthening the ties which unite individuals, fortifying the respect for equity and benevolence, encouraging labor, and assuring its reward by protecting property, favoring the progress of intelligence by nourishing the love of truth, and improving taste by purifying and elevating the sentiment of the beautiful. Civilization, in its turn, promotes practical morality. The closer and more varied the relatious among men become, the more sensible do they grow to their mutual duties. Labor gives man the sentiment of self-respect; the progress of scie: ce and the arts aids virtue, by enlightening the mind, and accustoming it to noble and delicate pleasures. If such are the influences of laws, religion and civilization upon morality, we need not be surprised that they have, in turn, been considered its source, from a limited view of its nature.

But if the moral law is, in reality, prior to all these, why, it may be asked, does it appear to vary so much in its effects in different places and ages? To this we reply, that practical morality supposes two conditions-the idea of duty faithfully comprehended, and the authori ty of duty strongly felt. But the idea may be partially or erroneously understood, and the sentiment may be blunted or weakened. The law of duty, in the abstract, is simple, and not liable to be mistaken; but its applications are often com plex and delicate, requiring the exercise of a strong and cultivated reason, and there. fore affording great occasion for mistake. The feeling of duty, too, requires a certain degree of reflection, and becomes extinct m a life of violence and sensual excess.

may, moreover, become perverted in consequence of positive ordinances, civil and religious. But the very abuse of the notion of duty supposes its existence; and we find not a few instances in which the native energy of the moral feeling has risen superior to positive institutions, and wrought fundamental changes in the laws, religious and other institutions, which had sought to enchain it. We might add, that the doctrines of philosophy have often been much more the effect of the manners of a particular country or age than the agents which modified them.-Moral precepts may be distinguished into two orders, with reference to the degree of obligation which they impose-the imperative and the meritorious. The first commands us to render to every man his due, includiug, of course, our duties to ourselves; the second, to do for every man, ourselves included, all which is in our power, and therefore to strive for our own highest improvement. But the limits of these two classes cannot be distinctly defined. In considering what the moral law enjoins, we soon perceive that there are degrees in our duties. Just as actions may differ in criminality, so may they also differ in merit ; and the degree in both cases will depend upon accomparying circumstances; and circumstances are often such as to make it difficult to determine on which side the balance of duty predominates. But though man is often driven to choose between conflicting duties, he is never obliged to choose between two criminal acts; although, in some cases, an act of guilt will present itself under the specious guise of a means for a good end; which has led some speculators to the revolting doctrine, that the end justifies the means-a doctrine sufficient to excuse the wildest excesses of fanaticism, which, in its blind zeal to effect what it deems a laudable object, tramples under foot the most sacred rights. When we inquire what gives a moral character to actions, we learn that it is the intention. A man's acts may, however, be sinful, although his intention at the time may not have been bad, if they originated in prejudice or ignorance, occasioned by a sinful neglect of the means of information. Proper instruction in moral duties is therefore every man's highest interest and highest duty.-Moral duties have been distinguished into three great classes-duies to God, to our fellow-men, and to our selves but, though they may be classified, they are not to be separated. Duties to God comprise, essentially, all our obligations and when we serve other men, we, in

fact, labor for ourselves; so, too, in improv ing ourselves, we are qualifying ourselves to render the highest service to others. The class of mutual duties which supports the social relations may be divided into three branches-the duties of the individual to society, those of society to the individual, and those of societies to each oth er. Under the name of societies, we include all the forins and degrees of human association-the family, city, country, and mankind. The duties of the individual towards society differ with the station which he occupies, and the nature of social institutions. The duties of the private man, the magistrate, and the statesman, are very various. Free institutions, as they greatly increase the sphere of efficiency, proportionably enlarge that of duty; and the rapid growth of such institutions, in our day, must give rise to new classes of social duties. Perhaps a wide field still remains open to moralists, in the exposition of the duties which society owes to its members. Some philosophers have been so blind to these as to maintain that the public interest would justify the sacrifice of an innocent individual. And how long have mankind been in learning the respect which they owe to the individual liberty of thinking, speaking and writing? Is this respect properly understood, even at present? Have politicians duly learned the regard which they owe to the moral law? Is it a long period since the writers on general law have considered with proper attention the rules which society ought to impose on itself in the application of punishments? But it is the relations of societies towards each other which principally demand the meditations of moralists. There is a social selfishness which meets a ready excuse, since each member of a society is apt to consider his individual character merged in his social, and that his duties towards the association with which he is connected, justify acts and feelings which would be censurable in his commerce with others in his individual capacity. Hence that esprit de corps, so bitter in its animosities, and so unscrupulous in its ambition, arming nation against nation, from com mercial rivalry or lust of territorial aggrandizement, from wounded pride or thirst of conquest. The code of interna tional law is yet very imperfect, and needs to be completed by reference to the code of morality.-See Paley's Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy; Adanı Smith's Theory of Moral Sentiments; Dugald Stewart's Philosophy of the active and

moral Powers of Man; Degerando's Perfectionnement Moral; Mackintosh's History of the Progress of Ethical and Political Science (London, 1830).—We shall now say a few words on the different the ories of moral sentiments. Philosophers have endeavored to establish some general principle from which the laws of practical morality may be derived, and to which, in doubtful points, we may refer, to determine our rule of conduct in particular cases. The Hindoo moralists find their moral principle in the precept to purify the soul from all sensual desires. Plato, who drew from Eastern fountains, expresses his law of morality under three different forms-Strive to resemble the Deity. Let your passions be in harmony with each other. Live in accordance with the fundamental type of the soul, or inboru ideas (or, according to the Stoics, with nature). Aristotle considered virtue and prudence as the same, and recommended the golden mean, or a rational avoidance of extremes; virtue, according to him, consists in the habit of mediocrity according to right reason. Epicurus (who did not, however, understand his precept in the low sense usually ascribed to it) founded his moral system on the rule, Live to enjoy thyself; which has been considered to refer to the happiness which virtue gives; and it is certain that Epicurus himself was a model of virtue. The New Platonists followed their master on this point. The fathers of the church did not attempt to establish any universal moral principle; nor did the Scholastics (q. v.). The English moralists have founded their systems on different principles; Hutcheson's rests upon the principle of benevolence, and assumes a moral sense; Ferguson followed the Epicurean theory; Samuel Clarke places virtue in acting according to the nature of things, by which man will facilitate his progress to his destined sphere. Adam Smith assumes sympathy as the moral principle; Wollaston, the acting according to the truth of things; lord Shaftesbury, the maintenance of a proper balance of the affections. Paley's system is founded on utility. Cudworth considers virtue as an innate principle. Of the continental moralists, Grotius and Puffendorf derive all duties from the fundamental obligation to improve the condition of others and of one's self, and therefore coinmand us to endeavor to do all in our power to promote the general good. The precept of Crusius, who considers duty an obligation to God rather than to man, is, Obey all the precepts of God. Thomasius,

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Leibnitz and Wolf give, as their fundamental principle, Aim at perfection; Kant, Be thy own lawgiver, and strive less for dominion over others than over thyself. In all theories of morals, two questions arise-What is virtue? How is it recommended to us? And all theories on each point may finally be reduced to three: on the first, that virtue is benevolence, or prudence, or propriety; and on the second, that it is recommended to us by selflove, or reason, or a moral sense.

MORAT (Murten; Latin, Muratum); a town in the Swiss canton of Friburg, on the lake of Morat (Murtensee), 14 miles west of Berne. It derives its celebrity from the battle fought here between the soldiers of the Swiss confederacy and Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, in 1476. After the loss of the battle of Granson (March 3), the fiery duke collected a new army of 40,000 men, and presented himself (June 10) before the gates of Morat. To the aid of the Swiss came their allies, the Rhenish cities, and René, the young duke of Lorraine, who had been driven from his estates by Charles, was with them, but not, as some have said, in the command. Their forces were much inferior to those of the duke; but, having reconnoitered the position of the enemy, they attacked him, drove in the out-posts, entered the camp with the fugitives, and, being joined by the garrison of Morat, gained a complete victory, making themselves masters of the hostile camp, artillery and baggage. Charles himself escaped merely by the speed of his horse, and, accompanied by only twelve horsemen, fled to Soigne, a town of Champagne, 70 miles from Morat. The remains of the killed (15,000) were thrown into a large pit, and covered with lime and earth. A large building was afterwards erected, in which they were collected, and which bore the inscription, D. O. M. Caroli inclyti et fortissimi Burgundiæ Ducis Exercitus, Muratum obsidens ab Helvetiis cæsus hoc Sui Monumentum reliquit. Anno. 1476. And beneath were these words:—

Dies Gebein ist der burgundischen Schar,
Im vierzehnhundert siebzig und sechsten Jahr
Vor Murten durch ein Eidgenossschaft
Erlegt mit Beistand Gottes Kraft.
Auf der zehntausend Rittern Tag
Geschah dies grosse Niederlag.

This monument was destroyed by tho French army in 1798, and a lime-tree, surrounded with a fence, planted in its place. In 1822, the Swiss confederacy erected an obelisk on the spot, as a nation al memorial of the battle.