Another Hanno was one of the commanders under Hannibal in Italy, and was distinguished by several fortunate enterprises.

HANOVER; a kingdom in the north of Germany, erected in 1814, consisting of the duchy of Bremen, the principality of Luneburg, and of several other countries. It does not form a consolidated whole, several portions of it being detached from the main body. Area, 14,800 square miles. The inhabitants, in 1829, amounted to 1,582,574, of whom 1,253,574 are Lutherans, 200,000 Catholics, and the rest Calvinists, Jews and Menonites. Its figure somewhat resembles an oblong square, having the Elbe along its north-east side, the German ocean on the north-west, Dutch Friesland, with Prussian Westphalia, on the south-west, and Saxony on the south-east. It lies between 6° 51′ and 11° 51' of E. lon., and 51° 18′ and 53° 54′ of N. lat. In 1815, it was divided into the 11 following provinces: Calenberg, Göttingen, Luneburg, Hoya and Diepholtz, Hildesheim, Osnabrück, Verden, the duchy of Bremen (which is distinct from the town), Bentheim, East Friesland, and Lingen (with part of the lordships of Rheina and Meppen). These provinces are subdivided into 107 bailiwics. With the exception of the Hartz, and other elevated tracts in the south, the territory of Hanover consists of an immense plain, with gentle undulations, but hardly any thing that can be called a mountain. In the south, the valleys are fertile. In the north are many barren heaths and moors. The most productive tracts are those along the banks of the rivers, which have been reclaimed from a marshy state. The mountain tract of the Hartz is covered with vast forests, which are particularly valuable in this quarter, as they afford fuel for the supply of the mines, with which the country abounds, and which are still more valuable than its forests. Those of silver were discovered as early as the year 968, and are supposed to have been the first opened in Europe. Iron, copper and lead are wrought here to a great extent; also zinc and sulphur, with green, blue and white vitriol. The iron mines are the most productive; and their annual tenth yields a revenue of about £115,000 sterling. The rivers of Hanover are the Elbe (joined by the Jeetze), the Ilmenau, the Oste, the Weser (which receives the Leine), the Ocker, the Innerste, the Ruhme, and the Embs (joined by the Stunte and Haze). The chief lakes are those of Steinhude and Dummer. The Hartz,

being a mountain tract, is, like other mining districts, deficient in corn. The duchy of Luneburg contains immense heaths, called, on account of their barrenness, the Arabia of Germany. These are turned to account as sheep-walks, and, in some degree, as affording nourishment to bees. The corn cultivated is a mixture of wheat, barley and oats, but with a considerable proportion of rye and buck-wheat; peas and beans are very generally raised; but agriculture is, in many parts of the kingdom, in a very backward state. Thread and linen manufactures are carried on in various parts. The other manufactures of the kingdom are coarse woollens, paper, leather and glass, carried on in a number of places, but on a small scale in each. The only town which has a maritime trade of consequence is Embden. Four fairs are held annually at Hanover, and two at Osnabrück. The goods imported from abroad are English manufactures and colonial produce; linen from Friesland and Prussia; broadcloth, silk and jewelry from France. The chief exports are coarse linen, iron and copper from the Hartz, timber cut into planks, with horses and black cattle from various parts of the country. Hanover has one university, 37 gymnasia and Latin schools, 3561 common schools in towns and villages, four seminaries for the education of schoolmasters, six schools for midwives, &e. Public debt, 30,000,000 guilders; revenue of 1829, 3,202,324 guilders; expenditure, 3,127,692; standing army, 12,940; contin gent to the army of the Germanic confed eracy, 13,054. Dec. 7, 1819, the prince regent of England gave Hanover a constitution, if we may designate by this name the charter, which expressly says, that no untried principles shall be introduced; but that, in the main, the chambers shall exercise the same privileges as the former provincial deputies. The provincial estates were not abolished, and the regent reserved to himself the right to change and modify the charter, which is founded on old aristocratic principles. The Hanoverian nobility is noted as the most arrogant in Germany, and the least advanced in modern liberal ideas. There are two chambers, neither of which is founded on the principle of general representation. (See European Constitutions, Leipsic, 1820, 3d vol., p. 345.) Their first session was opened Dec. 28, 1819, and the duke of Cambridge, brother to the regent, in his speech, reninded the two chambers that they were divided only to investigate

the affairs of the country more thoroughly, and not to have different principles of deliberation. Publicity of debate, of course, was not admissible. The privileges of these chambers amount to little more than the liberty of discussing matters which government lays before them. By the edict of Oct. 12, 1822, the government received a new organization, and the kingdon was divided into seven districts. At the head is a ministry at Hanover, which makes reports to the king in England, and receives orders in regard to affairs of importance. In many parts of the country, the feudal jurisdictions still exist, and, in many instances, the judicial and executive authority is still united, as was formerly the case almost every where. At Zell, there is a supreme court of appeal. Ernest Augustus, of the Brunswick-Luneburg line, was made the first elector, in 1692. His son, George Lewis, ascended the throne of England as George I. His successors have been sovereigns, both of Great Britain and Hanover. In the time of the continental wars, Hanover underwent many changes; was once in possession of Prussia; afterwards formed the main part of the kingdom of Westphalia, and, by the treaty of Paris, was raised to the rank of a kingdom. The duke of Cambridge, brother to William IV, is governor-general of Hanover.

HANOVER; a city of Germany, the capital of the kingdom of that name, on the Leine, which here becomes navigable. It is in the form of a half moon, and is separated, by the river, into two parts, called the Old and New Town. These were formerly surrounded with walls and ditches; but, in 1780, part of the ramparts were levelled, and laid out into streets, and the rest formed into an esplanade, where a monument has been erected to Leibnitz. Hanover belonged to the Hanseatic league, in the middle ages. The town has an antiquated aspect. This is particularly the case in what is called the Old Town. The New Town, which stands on the right side of the river, is built in a much better style than the Old. The public buildings are the elector's palace, and the public library, founded by Leibnitz. The charitable institutions are an orphan house, two hospitals, and two poor-houses. For the purpose of education, there is a gymnasium, a female school of industry, and several elementary schools. The Georgianum is a school, erected in 1796, for the education of 40 sons of Hanoverian nobles. Herrnhausen and Montbrillant are country man

sions of the royal family, at some distance from the town. The inhabitants of Hanover derive their chief support from the presence of the court, and the gentry of landed property. They have, however, some manufactures on a small scale, such as gold and silver lace, the printing of cotton and linen, the preparation of cichory for coffee, brewing, making of vinegar, &c. Population, 27,500; 154 miles W. Berlin; lon. 9° 42′ 51′′ E.; lat. 52° 22′ 25′′ N.

HANOVER; a post-township, in Grafton county, New Hampshire, 53 miles N. W. of Concord, 102 from Portsmouth, and 114 from Boston; lat. 43° 42′ N. The population, in 1820, was 2222. Dartmouth college is situated in the S. W. part of the township, about half a mile E. of the river, on a beautiful plain, where there is a village of about 70 houses. It was founded by doctor Eleazer Wheelock, and chartered by royal grant, in 1769. The funds, which were originally created by charitable individuals, have been increased by grants from the legislatures of New Hampshire and Vermont, and afford, at present, an annual income of about $1600. The college library contains about 4000 volumes; the medical library about 500; and two libraries, belonging to college societies, about 4000 each; making, in all, upwards of 12,000 volumes. The college has a philosophical apparatus, chemical apparatus, an anatomical museum, and a cabinet of minerals. The executive government is intrusted to a president, eight professors, and two tutors. The number of under-graduates, in 1830, was 137, and medical students, 103. There is a grammar-school connected with the college, which has about 50 students.

HANSA, or HANSEATIC LEAgue. In the middle of the 13th century, the sea and land swarmed with pirates and robbers. The German trade, during this reign of violence, became exposed to various accidents, when the merchants lost the right of travelling with armed attendants, and the convoy afforded by government degenerated into a means of extorting a tax without yielding any protection. Hamburg and Lübeck, which, with Bremen, had become important, since the time of the Othos, found a powerful common enemy in the Danish king Waldemar, whom they opposed with great vigor. This circumstance, the insecurity of the navigation of the Elbe, which was becoming constantly more infested with pirates, and the increasing dangers of the roads,

gave rise to a convention, in 1239, between Hamburg, the free city of Ditmarsh, and Hadeln, and, in 1241, to a confederacy between Hamburg and Lübeck, in which they mutually engaged to defend each other against all violence, and particularly against the attacks of the nobles. The confederacy was joined, in 1247, by Brunswick, which served as a depot to the two first named towns; for while Italy was in possession of the trade to the Levant and India, a commercial route had been formed through Germany, by the way of the Upper Palatinate and Franconia, to the east of the Hartz, and through Brunswick to Hamburg, although, at the same time, some goods were carried down the Rhine. Thus Brunswick was especially interested in the allied towns, which were soon joined by numerous others. This union was called, by way of eminence, the Hansa, which, in the old Teutonic dialect, signifies a league for mutual defence. In a short time, the members became so numerous that, in 1260, a diet was held at Lübeck, the chief city of the league. Regular meetings of the confederacy now took place there every three years, about Whitsuntide, and the general archives of the league were kept there. The number of the Hanse towns varied. The largest number was 85, as follows: Anclam, Andernach, Aschersleben, Berlin, Bergen in Norway, Bielefeld, Bolswært in Friesland, Brandenburg, Braunsberg, Brunswick, Bremen, Buxtehude in the duchy of Bremen, Campen in Overyssel, Dantzic, Demmin in Pomerania, Deventer, Dorpat, Dortmund, Duisburg, Einbeck in the Hartz, Elbing, Elburg in Guelderland, Emmerich in Cleves, Frankfort on the Oder, Golnow in Pomerania, Goslar, Göttingen, Greifswald, Gröningen, Halle in Saxony, Halberstadt, Hamburg, Hameln, Hamm in Westphalia, Hanover, Harderwyck in Guelderland, Helmstadt, Hervorden in Westphalia, Hildesheim, Kiel, Coesfeld in Münster, Colberg, Cologne on the Rhine, Königsberg in Prussia, Cracow in Poland, Culm in Prussia, Lemgo in Westphalia, Lixheim in Lorraine, on the borders of Alsace, Lübeck, Lüneburg, Magdeburg, Minden in Hanover, Münster, Nimeguen in Guelderland, Nordheim, Osnabrück, Osterburg in the Altmark, Paderborn, Quedlinburg, Revel, Riga, Rostock, Rügenwalde, Rüremond in Guelderland, Salzwedel, Seehausen in the mark of Brandenburg, Soëst in Westphalia, Stade in Bremen, Stargard, Staveren in Friesland, Stendal, Stettin, Stolpe, Stralsund, Thorn, Venloo in Guelderland, Velt

zen in Lüneburg, Unna in Westphalia, Warberg in Sweden, Werben in the Altmark, Wesel, Wisby in Gothland, Wismar, Zutphen, Zwoll in Guelderland. These towns were divided into four provinces, each having a chief town. To the first belonged the Wendish or Vandalic towns; chief city, Lübeck: to the second, the towns of Cleves, the Mark and Westphalia, and the four towns in Guelderland, which were not subject to the government of Burgundy; chief city, Cologne: to the third belonged the Saxon and Brandenburg towns; chief city, Brunswick: and to the fourth, the Prussian and Livonian towns; chief city, Dantzic. At another period, the whole was divided into three provinces. At the same time, four great factories or depots were established in foreign countries: at London, in 1250; at Bruges, in 1252; at Novgorod, in 1272; and at Bergen, in 1278. Charters from kings and princes gave firmness to the whole; and, in 1364, an act of confederacy was drawn up at Cologne. In the 14th century, the league every where attained a high political importance, and gave rise to the developement of that commercial policy which has since become intimately connected with all political relations, but of which the sovereigns of that time had little idea. The object of the league was now more fully declared: to protect themselves and their commerce from pillage; to guard and extend the foreign commerce of the allied cities, and, as far as practicable, to monopolize it; to manage the administration of justice within the limits of the confederacy; to prevent injustice by public assemblies, diets, and courts of arbitration; and to maintain the rights and immunities received from princes, and, if possible, to increase and extend them. Among the internal regulations were, the obligations incurred, on being received into the confederacy, to furnish soldiers and vessels, or, in certain cases, money as a substitute, and to pay the duties and amercements. The league exercised a judicial power, and inflicted the greater and lesser ban. Any place which incurred these punishments was said to be verhansed. Foreign factories were subjected to an almost monastic discipline, which even required the celibacy of factors, masters and members of the guilds. The laws prescribed to the agents of the English fur companies, in North America, and the North-west and Hudson's bay companies, resemble, in many particulars, those of the Hanseatic factories. By a uniform adherence to their

great object, and by the maintenance of good order, the Hanseatic cities obtained a great importance, although the confederacy was never formally acknowledged by the empire; and kings and princes were, in reality, more dependent on the league than it was on them. The Hanse towns in England were exempted from duties on exports, and in Denmark, Sweden and Russia, from those on imports privileges which were enjoyed by no subjects of those countries. The extensive carrying trade of the Hanseatic confederacy was a great source of wealth; and, at length, there was no mart in Europe which was not gradually drawn within the circle of its influence; and, by the greatness of its wealth and the might of its arms, it became the mistress of crowns, and lands and seas. It conquered Eric and Hakon, kings of Norway, and Waldemar III of Denmark. It deposed a king of Sweden, and gave his crown to Albert, duke of Mecklenburg. In 1428, it equipped a fleet of 248 ships, with 12,000 soldiers, against Copenhagen. Niederhoff, a burgomaster of Dantzic, ventured to declare war against Christian, king of Denmark. England, Denmark and Flanders concluded treaties with the league, for the extension of their commerce. It undertook to provide for the security of commerce on the Baltic and North seas. In the country under its immediate influence, it constructed canals, and introduced a uniform system of weights and measures. But the prosperity of the Hanse towns was naturally dependent on the continuance of the circumstances which gave rise to it; and when those circumstances changed, the league was destined to fall. When, therefore, the routes by land and sea were no longer insecure; when princes learned the advantages of trade to their own states, and turned their attention to the formation of a naval force of their own, and the encouragement of navigation; when the inland members of the confederation perceived that the great seaport towns had a separate interest of their own, and used them principally to promote their own ends; when the maritime towns ceased to be the masters of the Baltic, and the German princes determined to subject those of the interior to their immediate control, in order to secure the greatest possible advantages from their commerce, to which they were encouraged especially by the emperor Charles V, who thought to improve the commerce of his possessions in the Netherlands, and was, consequently, disaffected to the alli

ance; and when the discovery of America produced a total revolution in trade, then the dissolution of the Hanseatic league was evidently approaching. The last diet was held at Lübeck, in 1630, and the confederation was dissolved. But Hamburg, Lübeck and Bremen united anew (and, in certain cases, Dantzic was admitted among them), though not under the name of Hanseatic towns. In 1826, Great Britain concluded treaties with the Hanseatic towns, regulating the trade on principles of reciprocity, the same as with Sweden, Denmark, &c. (See Bremen, Hamburg, Lübeck, and Free Cities.) The name of Hanse towns no longer exists in the vocabulary of politics. Hamburg, Bremen, Lübeck and Frankfort are styled, in the German confederation, the four free cities.

HANS FOLZ. (See Folz.)
HANS SACHS. (See Sachs.)

HANWAY, Jonas, a merchant and traveller, distinguished for his active benevolence, was born at Portsmouth in 1712. At an early age, he was apprenticed to a merchant at Lisbon, and, in 1743, became a partner in an English house at Petersburg. The concerns of the partnership rendering a journey to Persia desirable, it was gladly undertaken by Mr. Hanway, who went to Astrabad with a cargo of English goods. In 1753, he published a work entitled An Historical Account of the British Trade over the Caspian Sea, &c., with the particular History of the great Usurper Nadir Kouli (4 vols. 4to.). In the same year, he engaged in the controversy concerning the naturalization of the Jews, and published a Review of the proposed Naturalization, by a Merchant; a third edition of which appeared the same year. From this time, Mr. Hanway continued publishing, on a variety of topics, all relating to points of public good, or schemes of charity and utility. His fellow citizens entertained such a sense of his merits, that a deputation of the principal merchants of London waited upon lord Bute, to request that some public mark of favor might be conferred upon a man who had done so much service to the community, at the expense of his private fortune. He was, in consequence, made a commissioner of the navy, which post he held for twenty years, and, on resignation, was allowed to retain the salary for life. He died in 1786, and a monument was erected to him by subscription.

HAPSBURG (properly Habsburg); a small place in the Swiss canton of Aargau, on

the right bank of the Aar. The castle was built, in the 11th century, by bishop Werner, on a steep, rocky situation; whence the name, which was originally Habichtsburg (Hawks-Castle). The proprietors of Hapsburg became, at a later period, counts of Hapsburg, and gradually acquired a more extensive territory. In 1273, Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, was chosen emperor of Germany. He is the founder of the reigning house of Austria, which is of the line of Hapsburg-Lorraine. From Rodolph to Charles VI, the Austrian monarchs were of the Hapsburg male line. Maria Theresa, who succeeded Charles VI, married Francis Stephen of Lorraine, who, in 1745, was chosen emperor of Germany. Their son, the first of the Hapsburg-Lorraine line, Joseph II, died 1790. His successor, Leopold II, died 1792. His successor, Francis (as emperor of Germany, II; as emperor of Austria, I), is the present sovereign. The castle of Hapsburg is still to be seen on the Wülpelsberg.

HARDENBERG, Frederic von; known as an author under the name of Novalis, born May 2, 1772, died March 25, 1801. His parents paid great attention to his education. In Jena, Von Hardenberg studied philosophy, and at Leipsic and Wittenberg, the law. From thence he went to Tennstädt, where it was intended he should be practically instructed in jurisprudence. In December, 1797, he went to Freyberg, where Julia von Charpentier won his affections. In 1799, he formed a friendship with L. Tieck and the two Schlegels. He had made himself well acquainted with law, natural philosophy, mathematics and philosophy, but was most eminent for his poetical talents. In the works of Novalis, there is a singular mixture of imagination, sensibility, religion and mysticism. He was the gentlest and most amiable of enthusiasts. Some of his hymns are very beautiful. His novel Heinrich von Ofterdingen was left unfinished. His Hymns to Night have the greatest merit His works have been published at Berlin (1814 and 1816, 3d edit.).

HARDENBERG, Charles Augustus (baron, afterwards prince of); Prussian chancellor of state. He was born at Hanover, May 31, 1750, and, after having completed his studies in Leipsic and Göttingen, entered into the civil service of his country in 1770. He passed several years in travelling through Germany, France, Holland, and particularly England. In 1778, he was made privy counsellor; but a misun

derstanding with one of the English princes induced him to resign his place in 1782, and to enter the service of Brunswick. The duke sent him to Berlin, in 1786, with the will of Frederic II, which had been deposited with him. Here he gave so much satisfaction, that the duke sent him repeatedly to the same place. In 1790, he was made minister of the last margrave of Anspach and Baireuth, on the recommendation of Prussia. When the margravate was incorporated with Prussia, Hardenberg remained in his of fice, and was made Prussian minister of state, and, soon after, cabinet minister. April 5, 1795, he signed the peace between the French republic and Prussia, on the part of the latter. At the beginning of this century, Berlin became the centre of many negotiations between the northern powers. The minister Haugwitz favored France, but the influence of Hardenberg decided the Prussian cabinet to take part with England. Count Haugwitz therefore gave in his resignation, and Hardenberg succeeded him, in August, 1804. The disasters which Prussia soon after suffered, in the conflict with Napoleon, are well known. In consequence of the treaty of December 15, 1805, which Haugwitz concluded at Vienna, between Prussia and France, Hardenberg again gave up his place to that minister; but, on the breaking out of the war of 1806, he once more resumed the port-folio. After the peace of Tilsit, he asked for his dismission; but, in 1810, the king of Prussia appointed him chancellor of state (prime minister), and endeavored to form a union with France; but the disasters of the French army in Russia changed his policy. Hardenberg signed the peace of Paris, and was created prince. He went to London with the sovereigns, and was one of the most prominent actors at the congress of Vienna. He was subsequently the active agent in all matters in which Prussia took part; he was made president of the council of state; was present, in 1818, at the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle; in 1819, at Carlsbad; in 1820, at Vienna, at Troppau and Verona. While on a journey in the north of Italy, he fell sick at Pavia, and died at Genoa, November 27, 1822. As to his political principles in the latter part of his life, he was an active minister of the holy alliance; but, still, he understood that the time of feudalism was past, and his abolition of feudal services and privileges in Prussia will always be remembered in his favor. He patronized the sciences munificently, and the