vent excesses, and was generally successful. He wrote to the emperor of Russia, Alexander, who was then at Laybach (q. v.), asking his protection for the Greek cause, and the two principalities Walachia and Moldavia; but the revolutions in Spain and Piedmont had just then broken out, and that monarch considered the Greek insurrection to be nothing but a political fever, caught from Spain and Italy, which could not be checked too soon (besides, Ypsilanti was actually in the service of Russia, and therefore had undertaken this step against the rules of military discipline). Alexander publicly disavowed the measure, Ypsilanti's name was struck from the army rolls, and he was declared to be no longer a subject of Russia. The Russian minister, and the Austrian internuncio at Constantinople, also declared that their cabinets would not take advantage of the internal troubles of Turkey in any shape whatever, but would remain strictly neutral. Yet the Porte continued suspicious, particularly after the information of an Englishman had led to a detection of some supposed traces of the Greek conspiracy at Constantinople. It therefore ordered the Russian vessels to be searched, contrary to treaty. The commerce of Odessa suffered from this measure, which occasioned a serious correspondence between baron Stroganoff, the Russian ambassador, and the reis effendi. The most rigorous measures were taken against all Greeks: their schools were suppressed; their arms seized; suspicion was a sentence of death; the flight of some rendered all guilty; it was prohibited under penalty of death; in the divan, the total extinction of the Greek name was proposed; Turkish troops marched into the principalities; the hospodar Suzzo was outlawed; the patriarchs of Constantinople and Jerusalem excommunicated all insurgents (March 21); and a hatti-sheriff of March 31, called upon all Mussulmans to arm against the rebels for the protection of the Islam; no Greek was, for some time, safe in the streets of Constantinople; women and children were thrown into the sea; the noblest females openly violated and murdered or sold; the populace broke into the house of Fonton, the Russian counsellor of legation; and prince Murusi was beheaded in the seraglio. After the arrival of the new grand-vizier, Benderli Ali Pacha (appointed April 10), who conducted a disorderly army from Asia to the Bosphorus, the wildest fanaticism raged in Constantinople. In Walachia and Moldavia, the bloody struggle (not the

devastation of the country, however) was brought to a close through the treachery, discord and cowardice of the pandoors and Arnaouts, with the annihilation of the valiant "sacred band" of the Hetaireia, in the battle of Dragashan (June 19, 1821), and with Jordaki's heroic death in the monastery of Seck. (See Ypsilanti.) In Greece Proper, no cruelty could quench the fire of liberty; the beys of the Morea invited all bishops and the noblest Greeks(proëdroi) to Tripolizza, under pretence of consulting with them on the deliverance of the people from their cruel oppression. Several fell into the snare: when they arrived, they were thrown into prison. Germanos, archbishop of Patras, alone penetrated the intended treachery, and took measures with the others for frustrating the designs of their oppressors. The beys of the Morea then endeavored to disarm the separate tribes; but it was too late; the Mainotes, always free, descended from mount Taygetos, in obedience to Ypsilanti's proclamation, and the heart of all Greece beat for liberty.

The revolution in the Morea began, March 23, 1821, at Calavrita, a small place in Achaia, where 80 Turks were made prisoners. On the same day, the Turkish garrison of Patras fell upon the Greek inhabitants; but they were soon relieved. In the ancient Laconia, Colocotroni and Peter Mavromichalis roused the people to arms. The archbishop Germanos collected the peasants of Achaia. In Patras and the other places, the Turks retreated into the fortresses. As early as April 6, a Messenian senate assembled in Calamata, and the bey of Maina, Peter Mavromichalis, as commander-in-chief, proclaimed that the Morea had shaken off the yoke of Turkey to save the Christian faith, and to restore the ancient character of their country. "From Europe, nothing is wanted but money, arms and counsel." From that time, the suffering Greeks found friends in Germany, France, Switzerland, England and the U. States, who sympathized with them, and did all in their power to assist them in their struggle. The cabinets of Europe, on the contrary, threw every impediment in the way of the Hellenists, until they were finally obliged, against their inclination, to interfere in their favor. Jussuf Selim, pacha of Lepanto, having received information of these events from the diplomatic agent of a European power, hastened to relieve the citadel of Patras, and the town was changed into a heap of ruins. The massacre of the inhabitants, April 15, was the

signal for a struggle of life and death. Almost the whole war was thenceforward a succession of atrocities. It was not a war prosecuted on any fixed plan, but merely a series of devastations and murders. The law of nations could not exist between the Turks and Greeks, as they were then situated. The monk Gregoras, soon after, occupied Corinth, at the head of a body of Greeks. The revolution spread over Attica, Boeotia, Phocis, tolia and Acarnania. The ancient names were revived. At the same time, the islands declared themselves free. In the beginning of April, the wealthy merchants and ship-owners, the bold mariners of Hydra, Spezzia and Ipsara (see Hydriots), long before gained over to the cause of liberty by Bambas* and other patriots, erected an independent government in Hydra. They fitted out their vessels for war, and the blue and red flag of the Hetaireia soon waved on 180 vessels, mostly of 10 or 12 guns. It must be remembered that the inhabitants of the islands, particularly those just mentioned, and the heroic population of Suli, are very different from the people of the Morea and Livadia, if we wish to form a correct understanding of the Greek struggle. While the conduct of the Moreots has but too often drawn on them the just reproach of their compatriots, the former have gained a name in history, which will be honored as long as an invincible love of liberty and bold and inflexible courage in an unequal struggle are prized. Even women, among the islanders, took arms for liberty, and, among them, Lascarina Bobolina, of Spezzia, was distinguished. The Hydriots cruised in the Turkish waters, and blockaded the ports. In some islands, the Turks were massacred in revenge for the murder of the Greeks at Patras, and, in retaliation, the Greeks were put to death at Smyrna, in Asia Minor, and in those islands which had not yet shaken off the Turkish yoke. The exasperation was raised to its highest pitch by the cruelties committed against the Greeks in Constantinople, after the end of March. On mere suspicion, and often merely to get possession of their property, the di

* Neophytos Bambas, teacher of natural philosophy and mathematics in the school of Scio, published, in 1818, in Venice, a manual of moral philosophy, which is one of the most valuable productions of modern Greek literature. He has since been professor in the Ionian university, in Corfu, established by the influence of lord Guilford. According to Pouqueville, the mercantile marine of the Greek islands consisted of 615 vessels, with 17,500 sailors and 5878 guns

van caused the richest Greek merchants and bankers to be put to death. The rage of the Mussulmans was particularly directed against the Greek clergy, April 22, Gregory (q. v.) the patriarch of Constantinople, was murdered, with his bishops, in the metropolis. In Adrianople, May 3, the venerable patriarch Cyrillus, who had retired to solitude, and Prosos, archbishop of Adrianople, and others, met the same fate. Several hundred Greek churches were torn down, without the divan paying any attention to the remonstrances of the Christian ambassadors. The savage grand-vizier, indeed, lost his place, May 1, and soon after his life; but Mahmud (q. v.), and his favorite Halet Effendi, persisted in the plan of extermination. The courageous Stroganoff (q. v.) was yet less able to make his remonstrances heard, after the grand seignior, in order to save his favorite, who was hated by the janizaries, on account of his plan of reform in the military department, gave a seat, in the divan, to three members of those riotous troops. The commerce of Russia, on the Black sea, was totally ruined by the blockade of the Bosphorus, and the ultimatum of the ambassador was not answered. Baron Stroganoff, therefore, broke off all diplomatic relations with the reis effendi, July 18, and, July 31, embarked for Odessa. He had declared to the divan, that if the Porte did not change its system, Russia would feel herself obliged to give "the Greeks refuge, protection and assistance." The answer of the reis effendi to this declaration, given too late, was sent to Petersburg; but it was only after the most atrocious excesses committed by the janizaries and the troops from Asia (for instance, in Constantinople, June 27 and July 2), that the foreign ministers, particularly the British minister, lord Strangford, succeeded in inducing the grand seignior to recall the command for the arming of all Mussulmans, and to restore order. The Porte even promised an amnesty, on condition of the submission of the Greeks; but what guarantee was there for the fulfilment of it? Individual executions still continued. Prince Calimachi, hospodar of Walachia, was sent, with his family, to Asia Minor, where he suddenly died on hearing of the execution of his brother. The old families of the Fanariots (q. v.) no longer existed in Constantinople, and, after all the cruelties they had suffered, the Greeks could not trust the amnesty of the sultan. They remembered, too, the 300,000 Moreots, who had been mur

dered by the orders of a former sultan, though their pardon had been stipulated with Catharine II. Their hopes were also strengthened by the war which broke out between Turkey and Persia, and they never gave up the confidence that the "Moscoviti" would at last arm for their protection, which Russia had taken upon herself in the three last treaties with the Porte. Meanwhile the Turkish general in Epirus, Khurshid Pacha, who was besieging the rebel Ali (q. v.), in Yanina, had sent troops against the Suliots, into the Morea and to Thessaly. But the Etolians under Rhangos, and the Acarnanians under the brothers Hyscus, obliged the Turks to shut themselves up in Arta, and made themselves masters of Salona. Ulysses put himself at the head of some Armatolics (q. v.), in Thessaly, and the archimandrite, Anthymos Gazis, called the peasants to arms. In Euboea (Negropont), all the peasants took up arms, and obliged the Turks to shut themselves up in the fortified cities; but these movements were not decisive, because they took place without coöperation; and, in fact, nothing was effected, but the driving the Turks from the country into the cities. The pacha of Saloniki delivered the pacha who was besieged in Larissa. Omer Vrione, the lieutenant of Khurshid Pacha, entered Livadia; the inhabitants of Athens fled to the islands; the Acropolis was garrisoned by Turks. The Greeks afterwards retook Athens, and attempted to reduce the Acropolis by famine; but it was relieved by Omer Vrione, July 30, 1821, and the inhabitants of Athens again fled to Salamis. On the Achaian sea, Greek and other pirates frustrated the plans of the navarchs (admirals) in Hydra, and the European powers were obliged to protect their vessels by cruisers. In the general confusion, the islanders distinguished themselves by their valor in battle, and their greater order in the organization of government; and if much complaint has been made against their piracies, it must be remembered, that the convulsed state of things offered great temptations to piracy; that the government was too weak to repress it; and that, privateering being lawful against the Turks, it was not strange that a people, so much removed from the influence of European civilization, exceeded the legitimate limits of private warfare. The Greek sailors were bolder and much more expert than the Turkish, their vessels much swifter. In fact, we can hardly imagine a navy in a more

wretched state of discipline than the Turkish. When, therefore, the first Turkish squadron left the Dardanelles, May 19, the Greeks constantly pursued it with their fire-ships, avoiding, at the same time, a general engagement; and, June 8, they attacked a vessel of the line, which had got ashore at Tenedos, burned it, and compelled the rest of the squadron to put back to the Dardanelles. June 15, the Ipsariots landed on the coast of Asia Minor, and took possession of the ancient Cydonia, now the Greek city of Aivali; but, after they had retired, the Turks burned the city, and 35,000 inhabitants either perished or were driven from their homes. The ill success of their expedition added fresh fuel to the rage of the Turks. The Greeks in the island of Candia, who had avoided all participation in the insurrection, were disarmed, and their archbishop and several clergymen executed. But the peasants in the mountains, and the inhabitants of the small island Sphakia, called the Suliots of Candia, refused to give up their arms, collected, and drove the Turks back again into the towns. From that time, the struggle continued, and the Turks, though supported by several thousand men from Egypt, were never again able to make themselves masters of the highlands. They, however, maintained themselves in the cities. Madden, in his Travels in Egypt, &c., gives some interesting details of the Egyptian expedition to Candia. On the island of Cyprus, where also there had been no appearances of an insurrection, the Greeks were disarmed in November, 1821, and almost all the inhabitants of Larnica, with the archbishop and other prelates, murdered. The peasants united for mutual protection; as a punishment for which 62 villages were burned in August, 1822. Since that time, the stillness of the grave has brooded over Cyprus. Similar atrocities were committed by the Turks at Scala Nuova, in Rhodes and at Pergamos, after the Greeks had surprised the latter place. In Smyrna, also, new cruelties were committed; and the European consuls did not succeed until November, 1821, in inducing the pacha to put a stop to the enormities of the Turks. Since that time, the public security has rarely been interrupted in that place.* But in the European prov

*Here, and in other places, the commanders of French, English, Austrian and American vessels, and the European consuls, among whom the French consul, David, deserves to be particularly mentioned, saved the lives of many unfortunate

inces of Turkey, the cruelties against Christians continued, as the sultan had issued a hatti-sheriff (September 20, 1821), calling upon all Mussulmans to take arms against the Giaours. This order was not published in Constantinople, for which the populace, in that place, revenged themselves by setting fire to the city, whenever news of ill success exasperated them against the Greeks.

The great Turkish fleet, under the capudan pacha, Kara Ali, strengthened by Egyptian, Tunisian and Algerine vessels, had, indeed, driven away the Greek flotillas, supplied the Turkish garrisons in the Morea with troops, arms and provisions, burned the small village of Galaxidi, in the gulf of Lepanto, October 2, 1821, and taken some small Greek fishing craft in the harbor of this place. Yet the fleet had effected nothing decisive. Hardly had it returned to the Dardanelles, October 22, 1821, when the Greek fleets renewed their system of blockade, and became, as formerly, masters of the Egean sea and the gulf of Saloniki. Meanwhile, Demetrius Ypsilanti had arrived at Hydra, with prince Alexander Cantacuzeno, with authority from his brother, Alexander Ypsilanti. In Hydra, the unfortunate result of the struggle in Walachia was not yet known. Demetrius promised the aid of Russia, and announced the restoration of the Greek empire. Yet it was with great difficulty that he succeeded in being appointed, on July 24, 1821, archistrategos (commander-in-chief) of the Peloponnesus, the Archipelago, and all the liberated provinces, and, as such, in being placed at the head of the Greeks in the Morea, where the dissensions among the capitani, and the undisciplined state of the soldiery, had a most injurious effect. Soon after (August 3), the principal Turkish fortress, Monembasia (Napoli di Malvasia) surrendered to prince Cantacuzeno, and Navarino to Demetrius Ypsilanti; but the rapacious Moreots did not observe the articles of capitulation. Some details of what happened after the capitulation of Navarino are related in the editor's Journal in Greece (in German, Leipsic, 1823). Demetrius, disgusted at this disorder, declared his intention to leave Greece, unless he were invested with power to put a stop to this licentiousness, which he received at least nominally. At the same time, the senate of Calamata united with persons, who would otherwise have become the

victims of Turkish or Greek fanaticism.

that of Hydra, in order to assemble a congress of deputies from all Greece, at Calamata. Whilst Mavrocordato and others were making these preparations, Demetrius Ypsilanti was closely besieging Tripolizza, the chief fortress of the Turks, situated in the plain of Mantinea, in the centre of Greece. The garrison was on the point of surrendering, when the appearance of the Turkish fleet, in the waters of the Peloponnesus, gave them new courage. But in order to induce the Turkish troops to make an obstinate resistance, from fear of the vengeance of the Christians, the Turkish commanders, at Tripolizza, ordered 80 priests and noble Greeks, who had been brought there, in part, by the treacherous invitations of the beys, to be all murdered, excepting two. October 5, after 2000 Albanians had received permission to depart, and the negotiations with the Turks were broken off, Tripolizza was taken by storm. The last post was surrendered, on terms of capitulation, by the gallant Kiaja Bey; but the Moreots could not be restrained, and 8000 Turks perished. Even the Albanians were attacked, and some of them plundered. In Tripolizza, the Moreots gained their first heavy cannon, and the place became the seat of the soi-disant Greek government, until it was transferred to Argos.

Ulysses was equally successful in Thessally. He and some other guerilla leaders, or capitani, among whom was Perevos, on September 5 and 6, near Thermopylæ, defeated a Turkish army, which had advanced from Macedonia. January 26, 1822, the Acrocorinthus (q. v.) fell into the hands of the Greeks by capitulation. On the other hand, the pacha of Saloniki took the peninsula of Cassandra, Nov. 11, by storm, the Greeks having become enfeebled by dissensions. 3000 Greeks were put to the sword, women and children carried into slavery, and the flourishing peninsula made a desert. The monks and hermits on mount Athos (Monte Santo), alone saved themselves by a heavy ransom, and remained undisturbed, because the Turks consider these rocky hermitages sacred. At the same time, Khurshid Pacha, November 13, assaulted Ali's fortress Zathariza, and the old tyrant of Epirus in vain expected succor from the Greeks in his last place of refuge, a castle in the lake near Yanina. The Greeks, towards the end of November, having occupied Arta, without obtaining possession of the citadel, were obliged to leave the city in the middle of December, when Omer Vrione returned from Livadia, and dis

perse themselves in the mountains. During this irregular war, the government began to acquire some form, as the separate senates established connexions with each other. They invested Demetrius Ypsilanti with the chief command in the Morea, Ulysses with the same office in Thessaly, and somewhat later also in Attica. Prince Mavrocordato received the chief command in the Albanian provinces. They finally sent prince Cantacuzeno to the emperor Alexander, to implore his assistance; but the prince could not obtain passports for St.Petersburg, because the system of the holy alliance was neutrality (as they called it), and discouragement of the Greek insurrection. Equally unsuccessful were the navarchs, in Hydra, in their attempts to secure the neutrality of the viceroy of Egypt by sea, as he now hoped for an opportunity of uniting Crete with Egypt.

First Attempt towards a Political Organization of the Greeks, January 13 (January 1), 1822, in Epidaurus, until the second National Assembly in Astro, March 14, 1823. With the greatest difficulty, Mavrocordato and some prelates had succeeded in giving somewhat of a federative constitution and a central government to a country which was by no means yet entirely freed from the Turks, and was occupied by parties often hostile to each other. The western part of GreeceAcarnania, Ætolia and Epirus, sent thirty deputies to Missolonghi, who, under the presidency of Alexander Mavrocordato, formed a government or gerousia, Nov. 4, 1821, consisting of ten members; the eastern part of the main-land, comprising Attica, Boeotia, Eubœa, Phocis, Locris, Doris, Ozola, Thessaly and Macedonia, sent thirty-three deputies to Salona, who, under the presidency of Theodore Negris, formed, on the 16th of November, the areopagus of fourteen members. The Morea, or the Peloponnesus, with the islands of Hydra, Ipsara, Spezzia, &c., sent sixty deputies to Argos, who assembled, Dec. 1, under the presidency of prince Demetrius, and established the Peloponnesian gerou sia of twenty members. These three governments were to prepare a permanent constitution, which was to receive, in future, such amendments as experience should suggest. For this purpose, 67 deputies from all the provinces of Greece formed the first national assembly in Epidaurus, Jan. 10, 1822, under the presidency of Mavrocordato, which, January 13, the Greek new year's day, proclaimed a provisionary constitution. Its principles were the following: the annual

election of all chief magistrates of the provinces, districts and communities; laws were to be made by the concurrent vote of the deliberative and executive councils; the execution of laws was to rest with the executive council, which appointed the eight ministers; the independence of the judiciary was to be provided for; this branch of government was to be exercised by the district, provincial and supreme courts. The congress then elected the thirty-three members of the legislative and the five members of the executive council. Mavrocordato was elected proëdros, or president; Theod. Negris, secretary of state of the executive council; Ypsilanti, who had expected this place, was appointed president of the legislative council, but never discharged the duties of his office. Finally, the congress of Epidaurus issued a manifesto, Jan. 27, 1822, in which they pronounced the union of the Greeks under an independent federative government. The operation of this was not so beneficial as had been expected. A people so long enslaved, and so deficient in civilization, could not at once establish a wise and firm government. The central government fixed its seat at Corinth, and, at a later period, again at Argos. The Porte was now obliged to divide its forces. One army was unsuccessfully employed in Armenia on the Euphrates, against the Persians; another was stationed on the Danube, to observe the Russian army in Bessarabia. But Ali's fall encouraged the Porte, and it was with difficulty that the Austrian and English ministers could convince the divan of the peaceable intentions of Alexander. But, in 1822, at the request of Russia, the sultan ordered the restoration of some Greek churches, and the election of a new patriarch in the usual way. The choice fell upon Anthymos, bishop of Chalcedon. He was treated with respect, for the purpose of inducing the Greeks to accept the amnesty. The Asiatic hordes, in May, 1822, evacuated the principalities of Walachia and Moldavia, after committing every kind of excess; in July, new hospodars were appointed-Ghika for Walachia, and Sturdza for Moldavia; both were Boyards, and Greeks were excluded from all offices in the principalities. The new hospodars were under the superintendence of Turkish seraskiers, and European Turks continued to occupy the principalities; they were, however, withdrawn from Jassy, which they burned and pillaged, August 10, 1822, enraged at the orders of the divan.