could not be persuaded to cultivate it. In this state of things, the island remained for upwards of a century. About the middle of the 17th century, the French and English buccaneers (q. v.) began to attract notice. The French obtained a footing on the west end of the island about the same time that the English got possession of Jamaica. The former applied themselves to agriculture, and, in a few years, attracted the attention of the French government. Several slaves having been taken from the English, in the war of 1688, the inhabitants renewed the culture of the sugar-cane. From the year 1722, when the French colony was freed from the yoke of exclusive trading companies, it rapidly rose in prosperity, while the Spanish settlements had declined in population. It was not until 1765, when Charles II opened a free trade to all the Windward islands, that Hispaniola began to exhibit symptoms of prosperity. In 1691, Spain had ceded to France, by the treaty of Ryswick, the western half of the island. In 1776, a new line of demarcation was drawn, and a liberal commerce was opened between the two sections. From 1776 to 1789, the French colony was at the height of its prosperity. Its productions were immense and valuable, and its commerce in the most flourishing state. In 1791, an insurrection of the negroes broke out in the French colony. In two months, upwards of 2000 whites perished, and large districts of fertile plantations were devastated. In 1792, the national assembly proclaimed the political equality of the free negroes and the whites, and, in the succeeding year, appointed three commissioners, who, on their arrival, proclaimed the emancipation of the slaves. June 21, 1793, Macaya, a negro chief, entered Cape François, at the head of 3000 slaves, and began an indiscriminate slaughter. The British government, hoping to take advantage of the confusion, sent a body of troops from Jamaica, who captured Leogane and Portau-Prince. The yellow fever, however, breaking out, reduced their numbers rapidly; and the blacks, headed by Rigaud, a mulatto, and the celebrated Toussaint Louverture, who had been appointed, by the French government, commander-inchief, retook the principal places. The English, after an enormous loss of men, finally evacuated the island, in 1798. Previously to this, Spain had ceded to France the eastern part of the island. July 1, 1801, the independence of Hayti was proclaimed. Under the administra

tion of Bonaparte, then first consul, a force of 20,000 men, under general Le Clerc, was despatched in December, 1801. During a truce, Toussaint was surprised and carried to France, and there died in April, 1803. Hostilities were now resumed with greater animosity on each side. The command of the black troops devolved upon Dessalines, one of the chiefs, who prosecuted the war with vigor and success. The yellow fever aided the cause of the negroes, and swept off great numbers of the French. General Le Clerc died shortly afterwards. Under his successor, Rochambeau, the French, now reduced to a handful, were driven into the Cape, where, November 30, 1803, they were forced to capitulate to an English squadron; and thus the greater part of the island was abandoned, and opposition ceased to the independence of the negroes. January 1, 1804, the general and chiefs of the army entered into a solemn compact, in the name of the people of Hayti, renouncing all dependence on France. At the same time, they appointed Dessalines governor for life, with very extensive powers. On his return, in September, from an unsuccessful expedition against the city of St. Domingo, which was still occupied by some Spaniards and French, he assumed the purple, and the title of Jacques I, emperor of Hayti. His reign was short, and, though some sagacious measures were adopted for the government and improvement of the people, yet his tyranny rendered him universally detested. He was slain by a military conspiracy in October, 1806. Christophe, his second in command, immediately assumed the administration of affairs, under the title of chief of the government. Petion, however, another chief, appeared as a candidate for the sovereign power, and the struggle between him and Christophe was long and fierce. A severe battle was fought January 1, 1807, in which Petion was defeated. Christophe's progress to supreme power was similar to that of Des salines. In 1807, he was appointed chief magistrate for life, with the power of naming his successor, and, in 1811, he changed the title to that of king, calling himself Henry I. The office was made hereditary in his family. From 1810 to 1820, the part of Hayti formerly belonging to the French, was under distinct and rival governments. In the north was the kingdom of Christophe, and in the south a republic existed, at the head of which was Petion, who possessed both sagacity and virtue. In 1816, he was appointed

president for life, and retained the office until May, 1818, when he died, universally lamented by his fellow citizens. Christophe (q. v.) was an avaricious and cruel despot, and perished in a military revolution, in October, 1820. In consequence of this event, the whole colony has been united under Boyer, the successor of Petion in the office of president, who is said to possess many of the virtues of his predecessor. That part of the island which was originally settled by the Spaniards remained in their hands until December, 1821, when it followed the example of the inhabitants of the north-western part, and voluntarily placed itself under the government of president Boyer, who thus peaceably became master of the whole island. In 1825, Boyer negotiated an absurd arrangement with France, by which Charles X, by royal ordinance, dated April 17, 1825, acknowledged the independence of the inhabitants of the French part of the island, in consideration of which Boyer stipulated to pay to France 150,000,000 of francs, as an indemnity for the ex-colonists, in five annual instalments. (See Boyer.)

HAZEL (corylus); a genus of plants of the family amentacea,containing five species, all confined to the northern hemisphere, and two of them indigenous in the U. States. They are shrubs or small trees, with simple, alternate leaves. The male flowers are in long, cylindrical aments or catkins; and the fruit, consisting of a nut, marked, at base, with a large cicatrix, is enveloped in the persistent calyx, which is irregularly toothed on the margin. The European hazel (C. avellana), from cultivation, has produced several varieties, differing in the size, shape and flavor of the nuts, which are commonly known under the name of filberts, and are imported to some extent. It grows in all situations, and is easily cultivated, but a light and tolerably dry soil is the most suitable. This plant has also gained celebrity from its twigs being believed, by the common people, capable of pointing to hidden treasures, when in the hands of certain persons. (See Divining Rod, and Rhabdomancy.) The twigs of the witch hazel (hamamelis) have been employed by impostors, in this country, to delude the public in a similar manner. The American hazel (C. Americana) very much resembles the European, but is humbler in stature, and the calyx is larger than the included nut. The flavor of the kernel is, by many, preferred to the filbert, though we know of no attempts to improve it by cultivation. It is common in

most parts of the U. States. The C. rostrata, distinguished by having the calyx prolonged beyond the fruit, in the form of a long beak, and very hairy, is much rarer than the preceding, but occurs sparingly as far south as Boston. Both the hazel and filbert are much esteemed, but particularly the latter, the flavor of its kernels being very delicious. They are, however, difficult of digestion, and, when eaten in large quantities, sometimes produce very unpleasant effects. The oil which is obtained from hazel-nuts, by pressure, is little inferior in flavor to that of almonds; and, under the name of nutoil, is often preferred, by painters, on account of its drying more readily than any other of the same quality. Chemists employ it as the basis of fragrant oils artificially prepared, because it easily combines with, and retains odors. This oil is found serviceable in obstinate coughs. If nuts be put into earthen pots and well closed, and afterwards buried 18 inches or two feet deep in the earth, they may be kept sound through the winter. In many parts of England, hazels are planted in coppices and hedge-rows for several useful purposes, but particularly to be cut down, periodically, for charcoal, poles, fishingrods, &c. Being extremely tough and flexible, the branches are used for making hurdles, crates, and springles to fasten down thatch. They are formed into spars, handles for implements of husbandry, and, when split, are bent into hoops for casks. Charcoal made from hazel is much in request for forges; and, when prepared in a particular manner, is used, by painters and engravers, to draw their outlines. The roots are used by cabinetmakers for veneering; and, in Italy, the chips of hazel are sometimes put into turbid wine for the purpose of fining it.

HAZLITT, William, the son of a dissenting minister, was originally an artist. A few pictures, executed by him in his youth, are said to display genius. His writings show thought, disfigured by paradox and dogmatism. He died September 15, 1830, the day on which his last work, Conversations of James Northcote, appeared. He had, for years, contributed to the periodical journals, and had published an Essay on the Principles of Human Action; the Round Table, a series of Essays, written in conjunction with Leigh Hunt; the Eloquence of the British Senate from the Time of Charles I, with Notes (2 vols. 8vo., reprinted New York, 1810); Characters of Shakspeare's Plays; a View of the English

Stage, containing a Series of Dramatic Criticism; Lectures on the English Poets (reprinted Philadelphia, 1818); Political Essays, with Sketches of Public Characters; Lectures on the English Comic Writers; Table Talk; a Letter to W. Gifford; an English Grammar, &c. Two or three years before his death, he published a life of Napoleon Bonaparte (4 vols., 8vo., 1828 et seq.). He was also one of the writers in the Supplement to the Encyclopædia Britannica. The editor of the London Literary Gazette, in noticing his death, says, "Though differing widely from him in most of his opinions, we must allow that he produced much which did credit to his abilities. It was his asperities which rendered his performances generally unpalatable to us, and the dislike was not removed by an officious and affected style. Yet there were bright parts, and of these alone we would now cherish the remembrance, as of a clever but unamiable man, who was, as he himself tells us, 'at feud with the world,' and who, consequently, treated the world with ill will, if not malice, which the world requited with something of resentment and scorn."

HEAD; the part of the animal body which contains the brain and the higher organs of sense. In many animals, it is connected with the trunk, by the neck, and is more or less movable; in some animals, however, it is immovable, and is merely a prolongation of the trunk. The head in animals is more distinct in proportion as the brain is more fully developed as the centre of the nervous system. It is entirely wanting in the lowest classes of animals, which, therefore, from the intestinal worms downward, form a third class, in the system of Latreille, under the name of acephala (headless animals), while those provided with heads are divided into two classes, the vertebral animals, having distinct and proper heads, and the cephalidia, having small and less distinctly formed heads. In this part the mouth (q. v.), as the opening of the œsophagus, is always situated. In the second class of animals, in which the head is less distinct, that part of the body which is provided with the mouth, may be called the head end. In the vertebral animals (mammalia, birds, reptiles and fish), the head has a bony basis (cartilaginous only in the cartilaginous fishes). In fishes, the bones of the head are not united with each other; and the formation of the separate bones is various. In cartilaginous fishes, the head is more or less oblong and angu18

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lar; in osseous fishes, it is less flattened, and composed of a considerable number of bones connected in various ways; in all fishes, the cavity of the brain is very small and oblong. Equally various is the formation of the head in the different classes of reptiles. In general, the head is composed of few bones, and more rounded in proportion as the brain is more developed. In birds, the bones of the head are more closely formed into one whole, constituting a skull more or less round, which contains the brain, and to the fore part of which the beak is attached. But the head is most perfect in the mammalia, and resembles the human head more nearly as the animal approaches more nearly to man. In general, the human head may be considered as the standard, which may be traced, with gradual deviations, through the different classes, until it entirely ceases in the lower orders of animals. Nowhere is its proper office, to serve for the reception of the nervous system, so distinct as in the human head; the cavity of the skull containing the principal organ of sensitive life-the brain; as the great cavities of the trunk containthe chest, the organs of irritable life (the heart and lungs), and the abdominal cavity, the organs of the reproductive life (the organs of digestion and generation). The superiority of the head over the other two parts just mentioned, appears also from the circumstances, that whilst it is preeminently the seat of the nervous system, it also contains organs essential for functions of the irritable and reproductive system; as the inspiration and expiration of the air are effected through the nostrils and mouth, and the entrance of food into the abdominal cavity, as well as the preparation of it for digestion, by mastication and the production of saliva, is effected by the mouth; and these organs appear more prominent, in the heads of animals, as their sensitive system sinks lower in the scale. It must not be forgotten, that the head also contains the tongue, an organ not only important in respect to nourishment, but also communicating the desires and thoughts, until it becomes in man the organ of oral intercourse, of language, and of the finest music-singing. The human head, and, more or less, the head of other animals, is divided into two chief parts, the skull (see Skull) and the face (q. v.). The importance of the head as the noblest part of the animal system, has occasioned it to be used metaphorically, in all languages, to denote that which is chief. (See Ear, Eye.) HEARING. (See Ear.)

HEARNE, Samuel; an English traveller in the service of the Hudson's bay company. He was employed, in 1769, to explore the north-western part of the American continent. The narrative of his researches, published after his death, which occurred in 1792, is entitled a Journey from the Prince of Wales's Fort, in Hudson's Bay, to the Northern Ocean (1795, 4to.).

HEART; a hollow, muscular organ, the function of which is to maintain the circulation of the blood, and which is of different formations in different animals. The organs of circulation are the heart, the arteries, the veins (see Blood Vessels), and the capillary vessels. The blood (q. v.) is divided into the arterial blood and the venous blood. The object of the circulation (see Harvey) is to carry the venous blood, which has returned from the body, into the lungs, where, by the influence of the air, it is converted into arterial blood, which is then again sent out into the system, to nourish it and repair its losses. The heart in men, quadrupeds and birds (see Animal) is composed of four cavities, two auricles and two ventricles (thence called double). It is enveloped in a membrane called the pericardium, situated toward the left of the cavity of the chest, between the lungs, and resting on the diaphragm. Its form is that of a cone flattened on its inferior and superior faces, the latter formed principally by the right, the former by the left auricle and ventricle. The right auricle communicates with the right ventricle, besides which there are in it three openings, that of the vena cava inferior, that of the vena cava superior, and that of the coronary vein. The communication between this auricle and ventricle is closed by a valve when the heart contracts. The right or pulmonary ventricle communicates with the pulmonary artery, which is provided with three valves. When these valves are brought together, they interrupt the communication between the ventricle and the artery. The left auricle communicates with the left ventricle, and contains also the orifices of the four pulmonary veins. The left ventricle, besides the communication with the left auricle, contains the orifice of the aorta. (q. v.) The ventricles are divided from each other by a fleshy wall, called the septum cordis. The valves at the openings of the arteries are called semilunar; that at the orifice of the right auricle, tricuspid; that at the orifice of the left auricle, mitral; and that at the orifice of the vena cava inferior, the Eustachian valve. The heart is formed of a firm, thick, muscular tissue, composed of fibres,

interlacing with each other. It is also composed of nerves, membranes and vessels. The coronary arteries arise from the aorta, and are distributed on the heart. The coronary veins return the blood of The the heart into the right auricle. arteries (from the Greek ång, air, and typeiv, to preserve, because they were thought to contain air) are the vessels which serve to carry the blood from the heart to all parts of the body. They terminate in the capillary vessels (q. v.)-a series of extremely minute vessels, which pass over into the veins. The veins are the channels by which the blood passes back from the body into the auricles of the heart. The blood which is returned from the veins is black, and is called venous; that which leaves the heart is red, and is called arterial. The red blood, possessing nourishing and vital properties, rises in the capillary system of the lungs, flows into the pulmonary veins, thence is received into the left cavities of the heart, from which it passes into the aorta, and is transmitted to all parts of the body, to the capillary system. It there loses two degrees of temperature, and undergoes other changes, by the loss of some of its elements in the important functions of nutrition, calorification, and the secretions. It is now become black, passes through the veins, from the extremities of the body towards the heart, receives the chyle and the lymph, and is emptied into the right cavities of that organ, which returns it, through the pulmonary artery, to the capillary vessels of the lungs, where it is subjected to the influence of the air, resumes the qualities of red or arterial blood, and is ready for a new course. Having thus described the route of the blood through the different parts of the system, we will now explain the mechanism of the sanguineous system. blood contained in the two vena cava is poured into the right auricle, which contracts, and thus forces the fluid to escape; but the vena cava superior opposes to its passage the column of blood which it contains, the other veins are closed by valves, and it must therefore pass into the right ventricle. The ventricle then contracts, and the tricuspid valve closing the passage through which the liquid entered, it is forced forward into the pulmonary artery, which contracts, and its orifice being closed by the semilunar valve, propels the blood still forward into the capillary system of the lungs, whence it passes into the pulmonary veins, which pour it into the left auricle by their four orifices. The contraction of the auricle impels it

The