Most of the European orders have their heralds, who are masters of ceremonies, There are three kings at arms in England. The highest is the garter king at arms (garder principal); the second for the southern provinces (Clarencieux); the third for the northern provinces (Norroy). These three kings at arms, with six subordinate heralds and four pursuivants, form, under the presidency of the earl marshal, duke of Norfolk, the herald's college or herald's office, established in 1340. (See the next article.)

HERALDRY. Arms may belong to individuals, to families, or to countries. Badges and emblems on shields and helms occurred in the earliest times. In Numbers (chap. i, 52), the children of Israel are enjoined to pitch their tents, "every man by his own camp, and every man by his own standard," with the ensigns of his father's house. The poets of the Greeks and Romans speak of paintings and devices on shields and helmets. These symbols were, moreover, hereditary. Thus Xenophon relates that the kings of the Medes bore a golden eagle on their shields. Suetonius asserts that Domitian had a golden beard for his coat of arms; and Tacitus says of the ancient Germans, that they marked their shields with brilliant colors, and that certain standards were borne before them in battle. Notwithstanding these traces of armorial bearings in the ancient world, our heraldry is no older than the tournaments. That armory first became common and regulated by certain rules at these solemn festivals, is corroborated by the following reasons. In the first place, we find no tomb or monument, with escutcheons, older than the 11th century. The most ancient monument of this kind is said to be the bearings of a certain Varmond, count of Vasserburg, in the church of St. Emmeran, at Ratisbon. The shield is coupé of argent and sable; over it is a lion, with the words "Anno Domini MX." On most of the other tombs, even of the 11th century, no arms are found; and the use of them seems to have first become common in the 12th century. The first pope, who can be proved to have had a coat of arms, is Boniface VIII, who filled the papal see from 1294 to 1303. All the earlier papal arms are the fanciful inventions of later flatterers. On coins, also, no armorial ensigns are found till the 13th century. A second proof of our assumed origin of coats of arms is the word blason, which denotes the science of heraldry in French, English, Italian and Spanish. This word

has most probably its origin in the German word blasen (to blow the horn); for, whenever a new knight appeared at a tournament, the herald had to sound the trumpet, and, because all appeared with close visors, to proclaim and explain the bearing of the shield or coat of arms belonging to each. Because this was performed by the herald, this knowledge was called heraldry; and because, in doing so, he blew the trumpet, it was called blazoning the arms. That this was a prevailing practice at tournaments, may be proved from the poetry of the Troubadours of the 12th and 13th centuries. Thence it came, that those knights, whose right to appear at tournaments had already been announced by blazoning their arms, bore two trumpets on their crest. From the Germans, this custom was transmitted to the French; for there is no doubt, that tournaments were usual in Germany much earlier than in France. But the French carried to far greater perfection the tournament, and the blazon or heraldry connected with it, as they did the whole system of chivalry. Since, moreover, the French language prevailed at the court of the Norman kings in England, pure French expressions have been preserved in British heraldry. Thus the green tincture (color), in a coat of arms, is termed vert (though in French sinople, which originally denoted a reddish brown; bright red is termed gueules, probably with an allusion to the bloody revenge of wild animals, which play so conspicuous a part in heraldy); the divided shield is, moreover, called coupé; and passant, regardant, dormant, couchant, &c., are used. German heraldry, on the contrary, contains almost pure German expressions. In a coat of arms, the helm is placed upon the shield, and the latter is surrounded by the wreath. At a tournament, the mantle of the knight, with the helm and shield, was suspended in the lists. The colors or tinctures of the shields had their foundation in the custom of the most ancient Germans, of giving their shields various colors a custom which received a tender meaning in the tournaments of the middle ages, the knight, bound to defend the honor of dames, and devote himself to their protection, wearing their colors on his shield. By degrees, the partitions or sections on shields came into use; for when, as often occurred, a knight was the champion of several ladies, he bore several colors on his shield, which had therefore to be divided into fields. When the martial youth of almost

all Europe left their homes, about the end of the 11th century, inspired with religious enthusiasm, to conquer the Holy Land, the use of arms became still more general and necessary. In order to distinguish the nations, armies and families, the princes and commanders chose their symbols, sometimes in commemoration of the exploits and events of the campaign, or of the dignity of the commander, and sometimes from mere fancy or passing humor. The practical functions of the herald consist in blazoning, historifying, passing judgment on, and marshalling, coats of arms. Blazoning is the methodical description of a bearing. In the first place, the shield is described according to its tinctures, figures and partitions. The inferior parts of an escutcheon are then blazoned, the helm, with its insignia, which are trumpet, wings and plumes, men and animals, or their members; then the wreath and its tinctures; after which the coronet, cap, &c.; finally the supporters, the mantle, the device and other secondary things. To historify, in heraldry, is to explain the history of a coat of arms, its origin, and the changes it has undergone. If the herald is to explain a bearing historically, he must show that this figure is the proper emblem of the family or country. He derives, for instance, from historical sources, the proof that the double-headed eagle of the Roman king was first introduced in the beginning of the 14th century, under Albert I, and that previously, from the time of Otho II, the royal eagle had but one head; that the three leopards in the English arms were first derived in 1127, under Henry I, from the Norman house. The marshalling of arms consists in the preparation of new escutcheons. In this matter, the herald either follows the orders of a sovereign, or he invents the idea, and makes the plan of the escutcheon according to his own judgment, or he composes a new escutcheon from several coats of arms. In heraldic science, arms are distinguished by different names, to denote the causes of their being borne, such as arms of dominion, of pretension, of concession, of community, of patronage, of family, of alliance, of succession, of assumption. Those of dominion and sovereignty are those which emperors, kings and sovereign states constantly bear, being, as it were, annexed to the territories, kingdoms and provinces they possess. Thus there are the arms of England, of France, &c. Arms of pretension are those of kingdoms, provinces or territories, to which a prince or lord

has some claim, and which he adds to his own, although such kingdoms or territories are possessed by another prince or lord. Arms of concession, or augmentation of honor, are entire arins, as the fortress of Gibraltar on the escutcheon of lord Heathfield. Arms of community belong to bishoprics, cities, companies, &c.; of patronage, to governors of provinces, lords of manors, &c. Arms of family are the property of individuals; and it is criminal in any persons not of the family to assume them. Arms of alliance show the union of families and individuals. Arms of succession are taken up by those who inherit certain estates, manors, &c., either by will, entail or donation, and which they impale or quarter with their own. This multiplies the titles of some families from necessity, and not from ostentation. Arms of assumption,or assumptive arms, are taken up by the caprice or fancy of persons who assume them without a legal title. They are also such as a man of his proper right may assume, with the approbation of his sovereign and of the king of arms. The parts of arms are the escutcheon, the tinctures, charges and ornaments. Heralds distinguish nine different points in escutcheons, in order to determine exactly the positions of the bearing they are charged with, as in the figure. A, the dexter chief; B, precise middle chief; C, sinister chief; D, honor point; E, fess point; F, nombril point; G, dexter base; H, precise middle base; I, sinister base. The tinctures mean the variable hue common both to the shields and their bearings; and there are seven tinctures-yellow or gold, expressed by dots, white or argent; red, by perpendicular lines; blue or azure, by horizontal lines; purple, by diagonal lines from right to left; green, by the same from left to right; black, by horizontal and perpendicular lines crossing; and orange and blood colors are expressed by diagonal lines crossing each other. The charges are the emblems occupying the field of the escutcheon, or any part of it. All charges are distinguished by the name of honorable ordinaries, sub-ordinaries and common charges. Honorable ordinaries, the principal charges in heraldry, are made of lines only, which, according to their disposition and form, receive different names. Sub-ordinaries are ancient

B

D

Σ

H

C

heraldic figures frequently used in coats of arms, and which are distinguished by terms appropriated to each of them. Common charges are composed of natural, artificial, and even imaginary things, such as stars, animals, trees, ships, &c. The ornaments that accompany or surround escutcheons, were introduced to denote the birth, dignity or office of the person to whom the arms appertain. They are used both by clergy and laity. Those most in use are of ten sorts, viz., crowns, coronets, mitres, helmets, mantlings, chapeaux, wreaths, crests, scrolls and supporters. The crest is the highest part of the ornaments of a coat of arms. It is called crest from the Latin word crista, which signifies a comb or tuft, such as many birds have upon their heads, as the peacock, &c. Crests were anciently marks of great honor, because they were worn only by heroes of great valor and high rank, that they might be the better distinguished in an engagement, and thereby rally their men if dispersed. They are at present considered as mere ornaments. The scroll is an ornament usually placed below the shield and supporters, containing a motto or short sentence, alluding thereto, or to the bearing, or to the bearer's name.

HÉRAULT DE SÉCHELLES, Marie Jean, advocate-general in the parliament of Paris, and, after the revolution, royal commissary, member of the tribunal of cassation, deputy from the department of Paris to the legislative assembly, and, at length, a member of the national convention, was born at Paris, in 1760. He conducted before the revolution as an upright and able magistrate. At the sessions of the legislative assembly, he presented several reports, particularly relative to the responsibility of ministers. In July, 1792, he joined in the declaration that the country was in danger; and he subsequently advocated vindictive measures against the royalists. He presided in the national assembly in September, and, becoming a member of the convention, he warmly engaged in the schemes of the revolutionary party. About this time, he was charged with the management of some negotiations with foreign powers, but they proved unsuccessful. He was then sent on a mission to Alsace, and, at Colmar, he ran great risk of being assassinated in a popular insurrection. In November, 1792, he was again employed as a commissioner from the convention to the army in the department of Mont Blanc, and he was thus absent from Paris during the trial of the

king. He, however, in conjunction with his colleagues, Jagot and Simond, wrote a letter to the convention, charging Louis XVI with an uninterrupted series of treasons, and recommending his condemnation, without mentioning the punishment to be inflicted. But he chiefly distinguished himself in the contest between the Mountain and Gironde parties, and he powerfully co-operated in the destruction of the latter. He was also a member of the committee of public safety. But all his services to the terrorists did not save him from the scaffold. He was denounced, March 17, 1794, for having, as he was accused, concealed an emigrant, and as belonging to the faction of Danton, with whom he was executed on the 5th of April following. He displayed great courage, or rather levity of conduct, in his last moments, bidding adieu to his companions with as much sang-froid as if he had been going to a party of pleasure.*

HERBARIUM, OF HORTUS SICCUs; a dry garden; an appellation given to a collection of specimens of plants, carefully dried and preserved. The value of such a collection is very evident, since a thousand minutiæ may be preserved in the well-dried specimens of plants, which the most accurate engraver would have omitted. Specimens ought to be collected when dry, and carried home in a tin box. Plants may be dried by pressing in a box of sand, or with a hot smoothing iron. Each of these has its advantages. If pressure be employed, a botanical press may be procured. The press is made of two smooth boards of hard wood, 18 inches long, 12 broad, and 2 thick. Screws must be fixed in each corner with nuts. If a press cannot easily be had, books may be employed. Next, some quires of unsized blotting paper must be provided. The specimens, when taken out of the tin box, must be carefully spread on a piece of pasteboard, covered with a single sheet of the paper, quite dry; then three or four sheets of the same paper must be placed above the plant, to imbibe the moisture as it is press

The words of Camille Desmoulins and Hé

rault, at their trial, and of Danton, at his execution, are strongly marked with the stamp of the men and the time. When Desmoulins was asked his age, he answered, "33 ans, l'âge du sans-culotte Jésus-Christ." Herault de Sechelles answered, when asked for his name." Je m'appelle Marie-Jean, noms peu saillans, même offered to embrace Danton, who repulsed him parmi les saints." At the foot of the scaffold, he bluntly, with the words, "Montez done, nos têtes auront le temps de se baiser dans le panier."

ed out. It is then to be put into the press. As many plants as the press will hold may be piled up in this manner. At first, they ought to be pressed gently. After being pressed for about twenty-four hours, the plants ought to be examined, that any leaves or petals which have been folded may be spread out, and dry sheets of paper laid over them. They may now be replaced in the press, and a greater degree of pressure applied. The press ought to stand near a fire, or in the sunshine. After remaining two days in this situation, they should be again examined, and dry sheets of paper be laid over them. The pressure then ought to be considerably increased. After remaining three days longer in the press, the plants may be taken out, and such as are sufficiently dry may be put in a dry sheet of writing paper. Those plants which are succulent may require more pressure, and the blotting paper to be again renewed. Plants which dry very quickly ought to be pressed with considerable force when first put into the press; and, if delicate, the blotting paper should be changed every day. When the stem is woody, it may be thinned with a knife, and, if the flower be thick or globular, as the thistle, one side of it may be cut away, as all that is necessary, in a specimen, is to preserve the character of the class, order, genus and species. Plants may be dried in a box of sand in a more expeditious manner; and this method preserves the color of some plants better. The specimens, after being pressed for 10 or 12 hours, must be laid within a sheet of blotting paper. The box must contain an inch deep of fine dry sand, on which the sheet is to be placed, and then covered with sand an inch thick; another sheet may then be deposited in the same manner, and so on, till the box be full. The box must be placed near a fire for two or three days. Then the sand must be carefully removed, and the plants examined. If not sufficiently dried, they may again be replaced in the same manner for a day or two. In drying plants with a hot smoothing iron, they must be placed within several sheets of blotting paper, and ironed till they become sufficiently dry. This method answers best for drying succulent and mucilaginous plants. When properly dried, the specimens should be placed in sheets of writing paper, and may be slightly fastened by making the top and bottom of the stalk pass through a slip of the paper, cut for the purpose. The name of the genus and 23

VOL. VI.

species should be written down, the place where it was found, nature of the soil, and the season of the year. These specimens may be collected into genera, orders and classes, and titled and preserved in a port-folio or cabinet. The method of preserving many of the cryptogamous plants is more difficult, on account of the greater quantity of moisture which they contain, and the greater delicacy of their texture.

HERBELOT, Bartholomew d'; a celebrated Orientalist, born of a good family, at Paris, in 1625. After having gone through a course of study in the university of his native city, he applied himself particularly to the Eastern languages, with a view to the elucidation of the Hebrew Scriptures. He visited Italy for improvement, and formed an acquaintance, at Rome, with Lucas Holstenius and Leo Allatius, two of the most learned men of the age. He was patronized by cardinal Grimaldi, who, in 1656, sent him to Marseilles to meet Christina, queen of Sweden, then on her way to Rome; and that princess was much pleased with his society. On his return to France, the minister of state, Foucquet, received him into his family, and gave him a pension of 1500 livres. On the disgrace of his patron, D'Herbelot was fortunate enough to escape the general ruin which involved the dependants of the fallen statesman, and his merit procured him the office of Oriental interpreter to the king of France. After some years, he again travelled into Italy. At Leghorn, he was introduced to the grand-duke of Tuscany, Ferdinand II, who invited him to Florence, where he arrived in July, 1666. He was magnificently entertained by the duke, and was also gratified with a present of a valuable collection of Eastern manuscripts. While in Italy, he commenced his great work, the Oriental Library; and, being recalled to Paris by Colbert, a pension was given him, that he might be at liberty to proceed with his undertaking. It was his first design to have published his collection in the Arabic language, and types were cast for the purpose of printing it. But the death of Colbert having interrupted this plan, he recomposed his work in the French language, as likely to prove more generally useful. On the recommendution of the chancellor, M. de Pontchartrain, he was afterwards appointed to the royal professorship of Syriac, vacant by the death of M. d'Auvergne. He died His book at Paris, December 8, 1695. was published in 1697, under the title of