themselves, but the choice must be ratified by the emperor. When the Cossacks submitted to the Russians in 1654, they retained their form of government entire. But the famous hetman Mazeppa having espoused the party of Charles XII, in 1768, with the intention of uniting again with the Poles, Peter I imposed many restrictions on the Cossacks, and the place of hetman frequently remained long unoccupied. The count Rasunowsky, having been elected hetman in 1750, received, instead of the former domains and revenues, 50,000 rubles annual pay. Catharine the Great abolished altogether the dignity of hetman of the Ukraine, and established instead a government of eight members. The Cossacks of the Don have retained their hetman: his former great authority is, indeed, somewhat circumscribed, but he acquires more and more the character of a sovereign, instead of that of a mere general and governor. (See Cossacks.)

HEULANDITE; the name applied to a species of the zeolite family in mineralogy, by H. T. Brooke, in honor of M. Heuland of London. It had been confounded with stilbite, from which it differs essentially, however, in the form of its crystals, which are always some modification of the right oblique-angled prism. In hardness, it is between calcareous spar and fluor. Specific gravity, 2.200. It is white and transparent, passing into red, when it becomes nearly opaque. It consists of silex 59.14, alumine 17.92, lime 7.65, and water 15.40. It is chiefly found in the cavities of amygdaloidal rocks, and occurs in the Faroe isles, the Hartz, and the trap of the Giant's Causeway and of Nova Scotia, at each of which places it is nearly colorless and transparent. It is found at Paisley in Scotland, and in the Tyrol, of a color approaching to scarlet, and almost opaque. HEWES, Joseph, a signer of the declaration of independence, was born in 1730, in New Jersey, whither his parents, who were Quakers, had emigrated from Connecticut in consequence of the persecution which their sect suffered in New England. Their son, after receiving a good education, engaged in mercantile pursuits; and, when about thirty years of age, he removed to Edenton, in North Carolina, where he acquired a fortune. He had not long resided in North Carolina, before he was chosen a member of the colonial legislature. In 1774, he was chosen one of the three persons who composed the delegation from North Carolina to the general congress that was to meet in Philadelphia. Here he was soon distinguished for his

attention to business, and, July 4, 1776, signed the declaration of independence. From this time, Mr. Hewes retained his seat, with the exception of something more than a year, until his death, in 1779. It is related of him, that when the Quakers held a general convention, in 1775, of the members of their sect residing in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and put forth a "testimony," denouncing the congress and all its proceedings, he broke off all communion with them.

HEXACHORD (from the Greek); a chord in the ancient music, equivalent to that which the moderns call a sixth. Guido divided his scale by hexachords, of which it contained seven; three by B quadro, two by B natural, and two by B molle. It was on this account that he disposed his gamut in three columns. In these columns were placed the three kinds of hexachords according to their order. Hexachord is also the name for a lyre with six strings.

HEXAMETER (from the Greek içáμeroos), a verse of six feet. The sixth foot is always a spondee (two long syllables), or a trochee (a long and a short). The five first may be all dactyles (two short syllables and one long), or all spondees, or a mixture of both. The scheme of this verse then is,

Κλύθι μευ, 'Αργυρότοξ ̓ ὃς Χρύσην ἀμφιβέβηκας, or,--|-~~|-~~|-~~|~~~|—— as, Κίλλαν τε ζαθέην, Τενέδοιό τε ἴφι ανάσσεις, and so on. This immense variety of which the hexameter is susceptible, its great simplicity, its flowing harmony, and its numerous pauses, constitute the charm of this admirable verse, and adapt it to the most various subjects. The hexameter is so long as to require, at least, dle of the third foot, either immediately one cæsura, which is generally in the midafter the arsis (the first part of the foot), which is the more common, in which case the cæsura is called a male one; as,

Forte sub arguta | consederat ilice Daphnis; or the cæsura is a syllable later, after the thesis (the latter part of the foot), in which case it is called female, as less nervous and powerful; as,

Huc ades, o Melibae, | caper tibi salvus et hasdi. If there is no caesura in the third foot,

1741 to 1748, he attended the lyceum at Chemnitz, where the instructers acknowledged his uncommon talent, and the untiring industry with which, deprived of almost all literary resources, he had acquir ed a remarkable acquaintance with the ancient languages. In the most destitute condition, he proceeded to the university of Leipsic, in 1748. There he was principally attracted by Ernesti's lectures, which made him acquainted with the principles of interpretation, while the archæological and antiquarian prelections of professor Christ enlarged his knowledge of classic antiquity, and his knowledge of literature was speedily extended by industrious reading and almost excessive nocturnal labor. Besides these studies, he pursued another as a means of subsistence (the law), and listened with great benefit to the history of the Roman law, with reference to ancient literature and history, as delivered by the celebrated Bach, by which means he was afterwards enabled to deliver lectures on Roman antiquities, for jurists in particular. He also wrote, in 1752, a legal disputation, for his degree of master. A Latin elegy, composed by Heyne, at the request of the reformed congregation of Leipsic, on the death of their pastor, made him known to the minister of state, count Von Bruhl, in whose library he was appointed copyist, with a salary equal to about 75 dollars. The only benefit that he derived from this appointment, was an enlarged acquaintance with the works of ancient literature, for which his inclination became every day more settled. Necessity at first compelled him to undertake several translations. The first classic of which he undertook an edition through inclination, was Tibullus, which he published for the first time in 1755. The moral tone of his own mind also led him to the writings of the stoic Epictetus, of which he published an edition in 1756. These two works made him known abroad. The breaking out of the seven years' war deprived Heyne not only of his salary, but also of his other means of subsistence. By Rabener's recommendation, he at last found support in the house of a lady named Von Schonberg, whose brother he accompanied as governor to Wittenberg, in 1759, where he was introduced by Ritter to a more thorough acquaintance with history. The war again dragged him from his studies, and placed him in a difficult situation, which, however, developed in him a talent for business. At this time, he prepared the Latin text for the third thousand of the Lippert Dac

tyliotheca, which made him more intimate with this department of archæology. At Ruhnken's recommendation, he received, in 1763, an invitation to succeed Gessner as professor of eloquence at Göttingen. He was soon after appointed first librarian and counsellor. To discharge the functions of these posts, required the most multiplied labors. He says of himself, with great candor, that, "till he was professor, he never learned the art it was his duty to teach." But he soon made himself at home in his new duties. His numerous and really classical programs, embracing the most attractive subjects of antiquity, and giving us cause to admire the extent of his knowledge (Opusc. Acad., 6 parts), evince that he thought and composed in Latin, and that he could express himself not only with purity, but also with ease and taste. His lectures, which he read with the greatest punctuality, constituted by degrees a circle of the most attractive and instructive subjects that the study of the ancients presented, and were closely connected with his activity as an author. By these prelections, as well as by his five years' connexion with the Royal Society, founded at Göttingen, by Haller, of which he was a most industrious member; by his indefati gable participation in the Göttingen Literary Gazette (Göttinger Gelehrte Anzeigen), which, especially under his management, from 1770, had the merit of acquainting Germany with the most important and rare works of the English and French; finally, and above all, by the direction of the philological seminary of Göttingen, which, under his guidance, was a nursery of genuine philology, and has given to the institutions of instruction of Germany, a vast number of good teachers;—by all this, together with his editions and commentaries on classic authors, Heyne has deserved the reputation of being one of the most distinguished teachers and scholars of Germany; nay, we may even say, of the literary world. But the centre of his activity was the poetic department of classical literature, which he espoused for itself alone, and from love of poetry, free from the narrow views which had been and were then prevalent among philologists. His particular merit consists in having raised the knowledge of antiquity and classical literature from the dust of the schools, and introduced it into the circle of the polished world. He esteemed the study of the languages, of grammar and metre, as the foundation of the further study of classic literature, but by no

means as themselves the ultimate object. This is shown by his editions of the poets, which gained him the most extensive reputation, of Tibullus, and especially of Virgil. For the most difficult, also, of the ancient poets, and the one who had had the fewest commentators, for Pindar, he has done much to make him intelligible, and first brought him into the course of instruction. But his principal work, which employed him for 18 years, was his great though unfortunately unfinished edition of Homer. Proceeding from the poets, he entered the territory of mythology, on which he shed much light, by his edition of Apollodorus, &c. Archæology gained equally by his antiquarian essays. Connected with these archæological and antiquarian investigations, were his historical labors, viz., the treatment of Greek and Roman antiquities, and his extensive knowledge of the internal history, constitutions and legislation of the states of antiquity, which he knew how to apply happily to the events of his own time. Even as a man of business and the world, Heyne was worthy of respect; on which account he was intrusted, from all quarters, with honorable employments, and his advice was not unfrequently asked by the curators of the university. He brought the library of Göttingen to its present state of excellence, so that it is regarded, by competent judges of the subject, as the first in Europe, because all the departments are methodically filled. In the same flourishing condition did he leave the other institutions which were intrust ed to his supervision. Not merely the fame of his great learning, but the weight of his character, and the propriety and delicacy of his conduct, procured him the acquaintance of the most accomplished and eminent men of his time. George Forster, Huber and Heeren became his sons-in-law. The centre of his activity always was the university, which he loved with filial fidelity and disinterested affection. In dangerous times, the influence which he had acquired, and his approved uprightness and wisdom, were of great service to that literary institution. By his efforts, the university and city of Göttingen were spared the necessity of affording quarters to the soldiery, while the French had possession of Hanover, from 1804 to 1805. At this time, his occupations were much multiplied, and he was him self appointed a member of the committee of the estates. When the kingdom of Westphalia was erected, he was no less active, and had, moreover, the pleasure of

seeing his efforts successful and his services acknowledged. After giving a final revision to his works, an attack of apeplexy terminated his well-spent life, July 14, 1812, in the eighty-third year of his age. (See Heeren's Life of Heyne, Göttingen, 1813.)

HIACOOMES, the first Indian in New England who was converted to Christianity, lived upon the island of Martha's Vineyard, when a few English families first settled there, in 1642. He was instructed in the truths of Christianity by the reverend Thomas Mayhew, and, in 1645, began his apostolic labors among his red brethren. In August, 1680, an Indian church was established on Martha's Vineyard, and Hiacoomes and Jackanash, another Indian, were regularly constituted its pastor and teacher. Hiacoomes survived his colleague, and lived to the advanced age of nearly 80. His death occurred about the year 1690. He performed all his ministerial duties with the greatest propriety and regularity; was slow of speech, of great gravity of manner, and led a blameless life.

HIATUS (Latin; opening) usually signifies a break; in prosody, for example, if one word ends with a vowel, and the next word begins with a vowel, an opening of the lips, similar to that in yawning, is produced in pronouncing them. Nature herself appears to have taught men to avoid the hiatus, since there is, perhaps, no language, in which euphonic letters are not found, the sole use of which is to prevent the hiatus. (See Euphony.) In Greek, this hiatus was avoided by the addition of the v ¿λvσTIKOV, or, in some cases, of a or a to the first word, or by an elision of its final vowel. The doctrine of the digamma (q. v.), in the criticism of the text of Homer, is founded on the observation, that, with the exception of a certain number of words beginning with a vowel, which have a hiatus often before them, the hiatus becomes very rare in Homer, and, in most cases, has some particular justification. These words are also rarely preceded by an apostrophe, and, preceding long vowels and diphthongs, are seldom shortened before them. These facts are explained by the assumption of the existence of the digamma. A chasm in MSS., occasioned by a part of a manuscript being lost, or by erasures, is often denoted in copies by the phrase hiatus valde deflendus, i. e., an unfortunate chasm.

HIBERNIA; the ancient name of Ireland, so called first by Julius Cæsar. Pomponius Mela calls it Juverna; Ptolemy, Ju

vernia; others, Overnia, Bernia, Iris. Aristotle mentions this island by the name of lerna, and, at the same time, speaks of Albion. In the Argonautica, which go under the name of Orpheus, the island of lernis is mentioned. The inhabitants of Britain told Cæsar, that Hibernia lay west of their island, and was only half as large. Ptolemy, who received more correct accounts from merchants who had been there, makes but few mistakes in his account of its size, form and situation; and by means of their information, he was enabled to form a chart of Hibernia, and to give tolerably accurate accounts of its coast, rivers, promontories and inhabitants. Agricola made preparations for conquering the country, but his design was not executed. Hibernia, therefore, was never reduced to subjection by the Romans. (See Great Britain, and Ireland.)

HIBRIDA, HYBRIDA, or IBRIDA (Latin; from the Greek pois, a mongrel), meaning of double origin; for instance, if the father was a Roman and the mother a foreign woman, or the former a freed-man and the latter a slave. Hibrida corresponds to the modern mulatto. If the parents had not received the jus connubii from the senate, the hibridas were little better than slaves. Hence vox hibrida, a compound of two different languages, as, monoculus, archi-dux.

HICKORY. This term is applied, in the U. States, to several species of walnut, which, however, form a natural section, or perhaps genus (carya), differing from the true walnuts, especially in the smooth exterior of the nuts. All the species of carya are exclusively confined to North America, and compose one of the characteristic features in the vegetation of this continent. (See Walnut.)

HIDALGO; a Spanish nobleman of the lower class. (See Grandees.) To the lower nobility pertain the cavalleros, escuderos and hidalgos (from hido, son, and algo, something). There are hidalgos de naturaleza, of noble birth, and hidalgos de privilegio, that is, those on whom the king has conferred nobility in reward of distinguished services, and those who purchase nobility. The latter possess all the rights and privileges of the other nobles, but are not so highly respected. With the exception of some old houses and knights of orders, the hidalgos differed little from the commoners. The Portuguese fidalgo has the same signification. The Genealogical, Historical and Statistical Almanac for 1830 (Weimar) gives 484,131 hidalgos in Spain 26

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HIDALGO, Miguel; a Mexican priest, who, in conjunction with Allende, commenced the war of independence in New Spain, in 1809. Hidalgo was, at that time, curate of Dolores, and possessed great influence over the Indians and Creoles. After raising the standard of independence, he was joined by a large body of men and the garrison of the city of Guanaxuato and of some other towns in the same province. Thence he marched to Valladolid; and, continuing to meet with success, he threw off his clerical robes, and assumed the uniform and rank of generalissimo, Oct. 24, 1809. Continuing his march, he approached Mexico, the capital, which was then poorly defended; but when circumstances favored an attack, he drew off his troops, and began to march back towards Guanaxuato. length the viceroy, Vanegas, collected a sufficient body of troops to become the assailant in his turn. Hidalgo was met and defeated by the Spaniards under Calleja, at Aculeo, and here the patriots received their first check. Other engagements followed, between various chiefs of the two parties. Hidalgo sustained another total defeat near Guadalaxara, Jan. 17, 1811, and was compelled to retire to Zacatecas with his shattered and disheartened forces. Thence he retreated to San Luis Potosi, with the intention of withdrawing into the Texas, in order to reorganize his army. He was finally overtaken at Acatita de Bajan, having been betrayed by Bustamante, one of his officers, and was made prisoner with all his staff. He was removed to Chihuahua, where, after the form of a trial, he was shot, June 20, 1811, having been deprived of his priest's orders previous to his execution. (Poinsett's Mexico.)

HIEN; a Chinese syllable, which, when added to geographical names, means a city of the third rank.

a

HIERARCHY (from icoa, sacred, and dox”, government); a sacred government, sometimes used to denote the internal government of the church, sometimes the dominion of the church over the state. In the former sense, the hierarchy arose with the establishment of the Christian church as an independent society. Although elders, called presbyters, stood at the head of the earliest congregations of Christians, their constitution was democratic, each of the members having a part in all the concerns of the association, and voting in the election of elders, on the exclusion of sinners from the communion of the church, or the reception of the repentant into its bosom.