settlements and missions on these inhospitable shores. There are now on the western coast of Greenland twenty settlements, of which the most southerly, Lichtenau, is situated in 60° 34' N. latitude. Near it is the second settlement, Juliana's Hope (Julianen shaab): in the vicinity, the ruins of an old Icelandic and Norwegian church are still visible. Farther to the north lie Frederic's Hope, Lichtenfels, Good Hope, New Herrnhut, Zuckerhut, Holsteinburg, Egedesminde, Christian's Hope, Jacobshaven, Omenack and Upernamick, in 72° 32′ N. latitude, the most northern settlement, now occupied only by Greenlanders. The governor of

South Greenland has his seat in Good Hope, and the governor of North Greenland is stationed at Guthaven, on the island of Disco, in 70° N. latitude. There are five Protestant churches on the coast, in which the gospel is preached in the Danish and Greenlandish dialects. The Moravian Brothers have three houses of public worship in Lichtenau, Lichtenfels and New Herrnhut. The natives, called by the oldest Icelandish and Norwegian authors, Skrellings, belong to the Esquimaux family, which is spread over all the northern part of America, to the western coast. They are remarkable for their diminutive stature; their hair is dark, long, stringy, eyes black, heads disproportionately large, legs thin, and complexion a brownish yellow, approaching to olive green. This, however, is partly owing to their filthy manner of living, and partly to their food and occupations, as they are constantly covered with blubber and train oil. The women, being employed, from early youth, in carrying heavy loads, are so broad shouldered, as to lose all feminine appearance. Their dress contributes to this effect; they wear the skins of seals and reindeer. The short coats, the trowsers and boots of both sexes, are all made of the same material. In extremely cold weather, they wear a shirt made of the skins of birds, particularly those of the sea-raven, the eider duck, &c. In winter, they live in houses of stone, with walls two feet in thickness, covered with brushwood and turf, and with an entrance so small, that it can be passed only on the hands and feet. Windows are seldom met with in these huts; those which they have are made of the intestines of whales and seals. The height of the house never exceeds six feet; it is 12 feet wide, and of about the same length. It consists of one room only, with a raised platform on one side, covered with seal-skin, which serves

the double purpose of a bed and a table. Lamps, supplied with train-oil, are kept constantly burning, as much for the sake of warmth as of light. The smell from so many oil lamps, together with that of the fish, raw skins and greasy inhabitants, is hardly to be endured by unaccustomed nostrils; and the filthy condition of the huts breeds immense quantities of vermin. When the snow melts, which is generally the case in May, the roof of the house generally sinks in, and the Greenlander then spreads a tent, which is covered with seal skin, and surrounded with a curtain of the intestines of whales; the interior is arranged like the winter establishment. Their utensils and tools are simple, but ingeniously contrived. They consist of bows and arrows, lances, javelins and harpoons. Their canoes are made of laths, bound by whalebone, and covered with dressed seal-skin. They show a wonderful skill in managing them, even in the most boisterous weather. They also use sledges, drawn by dogs, in which they sometimes go from 30 to 40 miles from the land on the frozen sea. The swiftness of these animals is such, that in 9 or 10 hours, they accomplish a distance of about 60 miles. The language of the Greenlanders is the same as that spoken by the Esquimaux in Labrador, and on the shores of Hudson's bay. Traces of it are also said to be found on the north-west coast of America, as far as Nootka sound. The variety in the forms of the verbs, in combination with the pronouns, is a remarkable peculiarity of this language. The superstitious Greenlanders pay great respect to their angekoks or sorcerers, who are at the same time their priests and physicians. They have but very rude notions of a Supreme Being. During the prevalence of the north-east winds, the cold is often so great, that the mercury sinks to 48° below the freezing point of Fahr. The west winds coming from Davis's straits are always damp, and accompanied by thaws. The basis of the mountains and rocks is a fine-grained granite, with gneiss, mica slate, hornblende and whitestone. Many interesting and uncommon minerals are found-magnetic iron ore, gadolinite, zircon, schorl, tourmaline, the finest garnets, sodalite, iolite, and hypersthene of a beautiful light blue. Among the animals are the polar fox, the white hare, the reindeer, the white bear, the arctic fox, the walrus, various kinds of seals, and the narval. The Greenland whale (see Whale, and Whale-Fishery) is found in great numbers

and of an enormous size. Of the birds, the principal is the cinereous eagle; the snowy owl, and others of the falcon tribe, inhabit the high rocks; the water-fowl are numerous. A species of mosquito is exceedingly troublesome in the warm weather. The exports are whalebone, oil, skins and furs, eider down, the horns of the narval, &c. The imports are provisions, gunpowder, cotton and linen goods, iron and glass wares, &c. In the inlets and bays which intersect the coast of Greenland, immense masses of ice are accumulated during a series of years, which, being loosened during the heat of summer, lose their points of support from the shore,and plunge into the ocean with athundering noise. Being afterwards set adrift by the currents, they embarrass the navigation of the Polar seas, and become the terror of the mariner. Those masses of ice are formed both of fresh and of salt water, and sometimes rise more than 500 feet above the surface of the water. The salt water ice occurs in immense fields, of many thousand fathoms in length and breadth, divided by fissures, but following close on each other. When the wind begins to blow, and the sea to rise in vast billows, the violent shocks of those masses of ice against each other, fill the mind with astonishment and terror. The coasts of Greenland are surrounded by many thousand islands of different sizes, on which the native inhabitants frequently fix their residence, on account of their good situation for sea game.

GREEN MOUNTAINS; a range of mountains, commencing in Canada, and extending south through Vermont, Massachusetts and Connecticut. They divide the waters which flow into the Connecticut from those which flow into lake Champlain and the Hudson. Among the highest summits in Vermont are Mansfield mountain, Camel's rump, and Killington peak. West rock, near New Haven, Conn., is the southern termination of the chain. The natural growth upon these mountains is hemlock, pine, spruce, and other evergreens, and they derive their name from their green appearance. There are many fine farms among these mountains, and much of the land upon them is excellent for grazing.

GREENOCK; the chief seaport of Scotland, on the south bank of the river Clyde, which has in front an extensive and beautiful bay. The manufactories of the place are sugar-houses, rope-walks, soap and candle works, tan works, potteries, bottle and crystal works, hat manu

factories, extensive founderies and manufactories of steam engines and chain cables; to these may be added ship-building, which is carried on to a great extent. The herring-fishery is the oldest branch of the industry of the place. The harbors are very spacious, and are frequented by vessels from all quarters of the world. The dry docks are elegant and commodious; the one lately erected, near the custom-house, is considered the first in the kingdom. Population in 1828, over 25,000. Lon. 0° 18′ 58′′W.; lat. 55° 57′ 2′′N. GREENSTONE. (See Hornblende.)

GREENVILLE COLLEGE, pleasantly situated, 3 miles from Greenville, Tennessee, was incorporated in 1794. The college hall is a neat building, about 60 feet long, and 25 wide, of 2 stories. The college has a library of about 3500 volumes, a small philosophical apparatus, and funded property to the amount of about $6000.

GREENWICH; a market-town of England, in Kent, on the southern bank of the Thames, formerly the seat of a palace in which the kings of England occasionally resided. It was built by Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, and called Placentia. Henry VII enlarged it, and his son, Henry VIII, finished it. Queen Elizabeth and queen Mary were born within its walls, and Edward VI died here. King Charles II took the greater part down, and commenced a new palace on its site, a part of which forms one wing of the present hospital. This consists, at present, of four extensive piles of building or wings, entirely detached from each other, but so connected by the conformity of their dimensions, their figures, and the general arrangement of their decorations, as to form a complete whole. The principal front, which is nearly all of Portland stone, faces the Thames on the north. The two northern wings are separated by a square of 270 feet wide; the two southern are connected by two colonnades, 115 feet asunder, supported by 300 double columns and pilasters; while a spacious avenue through the hospital from the town, divides these squares from each other, and thus also divides the whole of the northern half of the building from the whole of the southern. In the middle of the great square is a statue of George II, sculptured by Rysbrach. Extending 865 feet along the front, the intervening bank of the Thames is formed into a terrace, with a double flight of steps to the river in the middle. The pensioners to be received into the hospital must be aged and maimed seamen of the navy, or

of the merchant service, if wounded in battle, and marines and foreigners who have served two years in the navy. The total expense of the establishment is £69,000 per annum,which is appropriated to the support of about 3000 seamen on the premises, and 5400 out-pensioners. Connected with this establishment is a naval asylum, designed for the support and education of the orphan children of seamen. On a rising ground in the park, 160 feet above low water mark, and commanding a rich and varied prospect, stands the royal observatory, celebrated by the great names with which it is associated. The private buildings are handsome, but the streets are in general irregular. Population of the parish in 1821, 20,712; 5 miles E. London bridge. The longitude in English geography is calculated from the meridian of Greenwich. Lat. 51° 29′ N.

GREFFIER; formerly, in the United Provinces, the first secretary of state; in France, the clerk of a court of justice. (For the etymology of the word, see Count.) GREGOIRE, Henry, count, former bishop of Blois, whose civil, literary and religious career has been characterized by love of liberty, active philanthropy, inflexible integrity and ardent piety. He was born at Vetro in 1750; he was a member of the states-general in 1789, and was one of the five ecclesiastics present at the session of the Tennis Court. In the constituent assembly, he was dis tinguished for the boldness of his opinions on civil and religious liberty, and for the eloquence by which he supported them. At this early period, he began his efforts in favor of the Jews and blacks, which place him high among the friends of humanity. He was the first among the clergy to take the constitutional oath. In the convention, Grégoire advocated the abolition of royalty (September, 1792), but endeavored, at the same time, to save the king, by proposing that the punishment of death should be abolished. His absence on a mission with three members of the convention, prevented him from voting on the trial of the king; but he refused to sign the letter of his three colleagues to that body, demanding the sentence of death. In the reign of terror, when the bishop of Paris abdicated his dignity, and several of the clergy abjured the Christian religion in the presence of the convention, the bishop of Blois had the courage to resist the storm of invectives from the tribunes, and threats from the Mountain. "Are sacrifices demanded

for the country?" he said; "I am accustomed to make them. Are the revenues of my bishopric required? I abandon them without regret. Is religion the subject of your deliberations? It is an affair beyond your jurisdiction. I demand the freedom of religious worship." At a later period, we find him in the senate, forming one of the minority of five, opposing the accession of the first consul to the throne, and alone in opposing the obsequious address of that body to the new sovereign. In 1814, he signed the act deposing the emperor, and, in 1815, refused, as member of the institute, to sign the additional act. On the restoration of the Bourbons, he was excluded from the institute, and from his episcopal see; and, on his election to the chamber of deputies in 1819, he was excluded from a seat by the royalist majority. Since this unmerited indignity, this venerable philanthropist and scholar has devoted himself to his literary and benevolent labors. Died in 1831.

GREGORIAN CALENDAR. (See Calendar.) GREGORY, bishop of Neocæsarea, in which place he was born, of pagan parents, was called, on account of the many miracles which he is said to have performed, Thaumaturgus (the worker of miracles). He was distinguished for his eloquence, and was a pupil of Origen. He died about 270. His works were published (in Greek and Latin) by Vossius, with scholia, Mayence, 1604, 4to.

GREGORY OF NAZIANZEN, a celebrated teacher of the Greek church, born about 328, at Arianzo, near Nazianzum, in Cappadocia, was at first presbyter and afterwards bishop of Nazianzum. He was the intimate friend of Basil, and a violent enemy of the Arians. Among his pupils in eloquence, Jerome was the most distinguished. He died about 390, and left many works, of which a complete edition (Greek and Latin) was published at Paris, 1609, 2 vols. folio.

GREGORY OF TOURS (his proper name was George Florentinus) was born in Auvergne (539), made bishop of Tours in 573, showed great firmness in the dreadful times of Chilperic and Fredegonde (q. v.), and died Nov. 27, 593. Besides his eight books on the virtues and miracles of the saints, he left Historia Eccles. Francorum Libri X., which he brought down to the year 591, and which, notwithstanding its marvellous tales and its want of method, has much interest, as being the only historical work of the time.

GREGORY I, pope; called also the Great. He was born at Rome, of a noble

family, about 544; and, having received an education suitable to his rank, he became a member of the senate, and filled other employments in the state. Italy was then subject to the emperors of the East, and Justin II appointed him to the important post of prefect or governor of Rome; which, after having held it for some time with great reputation, he resigned. The death of his father put him in possession of great wealth, which he expended in the foundation of monasteries and charitable institutions. Disgusted with the world, he took the monastic vows himself, and became a member of one of his own establishments. Pope Pelagius II sent him on an embassy to Constantinople, and made him papal secretary after his return to Rome. On the death of pope Pelagius, in 590, he was chosen his successor. He displayed great zeal for the conversion of heretics, the advancement of monachism, and the rigid enforcement of celibacy among the clergy. His contest for ecclesiastical superiority with John, patriarch of Constantinople, laid the foundation of the schism between the Greek and Latin churches, which has subsisted to the present day. The conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity was a project honorable to his zeal and abilities. (See Augustin, St.) He died in March, 604. The works ascribed to this pope are very numerous, and have been frequently published. The most complete edition is that of the Benedictines of St. Maur (Paris, 1705, 4 vols. folio), under the superintendence of father Denis de St. Martha, who, in 1697, published a life of St. Gregory the Great. His genuine writings consist of a treatise on the Pastoral Duty, Letters, Scripture Commentaries, &c.

GREGORY OF NYSSA; born at Nyssa, in Cappadocia, younger brother of Basil the Great, celebrated as an ardent defender of the Nicene creed, and also for his eloquence. He died in his native city, of which he was bishop, some time after 394. Editions of his works were published at Paris in 1573 and 1605, and 1615 and 1638 (3 vols. folio).

GREGORY VII (Hildebrand). The year and the place of the birth of this great pope are uncertain. Some accounts say that he was born at Sienna, others at Soana, in Tuscany; others still, at Rome. It is, however, certain, that he lived at Rome when a child, and went to France when a young man, where he became connected with the monastery at Cluny, and returned to Rome in 1045. His history becomes more known after the time

of his return to the monastery of Cluny, where Leo IX saw him on his journey through France. He returned with this pope to Rome, and from that time, although in the back ground, he played an important part; and by the influence which great minds always exercise over ordinary men, he directed the measures of Leo and several following popes. On the death of Alexander II (1073), cardinal Hildebrand was raised to the papal chair. He now labored with the greatest energy to accomplish those plans for which he had prepared the way by the measures which the preceding popes had adopted through his influence. It was the object of his ambition not only to place the whole ecclesiastical power in the hands of the pope, but to make the church entirely independent of the temporal power. He wished to found a theocracy, in which the pope, the vicar of God, should be the sovereign ruler, in political as well as ecclesiastical matters-a bold idea, which he probably conceived in consequence of the wretched state of all civil authority. He therefore prohibited the marriage of priests, and abolished lay investiture, the only remaining source of the authority of princes over the clergy of their dominions. In 1074, he issued his edicts against simony and the marriage of priests, and, in 1075, an edict forbidding the clergy, under penalty of forfeiting their offices, from receiving the investiture of any ecclesiastical dignity from the hands of a layman, and, at the same time, forbidding the laity, under penalty of excommunication, to attempt the exercise of the investiture of the clergy. The emperor Henry IV refused to obey this decree, and Gregory took advantage of the discontent excited by the despotic character and youthful levity of the emperor, among the people and princes of Germany, to advance his own purposes. In 1075, he deposed several German bishops, who had bought their offices of the emperor, and excommunicated five imperial counsellors, who were concerned in this transaction; and when the emperor persisted in retaining the counsellors and supporting the bishops, the pope, in 1076, issued a new decree, summoning the emperor before a council at Rome, to defend himself against the charges brought against him. Henry IV then caused a sentence of deposition to be passed against the pope, by a council assembled at Worms. The pope, in return, excommunicated the emperor, and released all his subjects and vassals from their oath of allegiance. The

emperor soon found all Upper Germany in opposition to him, at the very moment that the Saxons in Lower Germany renewed the war against him; and when the princes assembled at Oppenheim came to the determination of proceeding to the election of another emperor, he yielded, almost unconditionally; he was obliged to consent to acknowledge the pope, whom they were to invite into the empire, as his judge, to abandon his excommunicated counsellors, and to consider himself as suspended from the government. To prevent being deposed by the pope, Henry IV (q. v.) hastened to Italy, where he submitted, at Canossa (1077), to a humiliating penance, and received absolution. In the mean time, his friends again assembled around him, and he defeated his rival, Rodolph of Suabia. He then caused the pope to be deposed by the council of Brixen, and an antipope, Clement III, to be elected in 1080, after which he hastened to Rome, and placed the new pope on the throne. Gregory now passed three years as a prisoner in the castle of St. Angelo, but could never be induced to compromit the rights of the church. He was finally liberated by Robert Guiscard, a celebrated Norman prince, whom he had made duke of Apulia; but the Romans compelled him to quit the city, because it had been plundered by the soldiers of Robert. Gregory then retired to Salerno, under the protection of the Norman prince, where he died, in 1085. By the celibacy (q. v.) of the clergy, Gregory aimed at increasing their sanctity, and making them entirely independent of family connexions. The same measure prevented the possessions of the church from becoming mere feudal dependencies on temporal princes, which would have been the natural course, if the clergy had become parents, and, of course, desirous of transmitting the estates which they enjoyed to their children. Matilda, countess of Tuscany, whom he induced to bequeath her almost regal possessions to the papal see, was his chief support. Most Protestant writers have accused him of insatiable ambition; but the impartial historian, who considers the spirit of his whole life, studies his letters, and observes that his severity towards himself was as great as towards others, will judge differently. Gregory must be considered as a great spiritual conqueror, who rendered the clergy independent of the temporal power, and secured their safety amid the scenes of violence with which Europe was filled; thereby rendering them capable of ad

vancing the progress of civilization, which was in great danger of being swallowed up in barbarism. The papal power, which he rendered independent of the imperial, was, for ages, the great bulwark of order amid the turbulence of the semicivilized people of Europe. In capaciousness and boldness of mind, he may be compared to Napoleon. His system undoubtedly became unsuitable, like all other systems, to the wants of a more advanced age; and the good of mankind, in the progress of time, required that the temporal powers should become again independent of the Roman see.

GREGORY, James, a mathematician and philosopher, the inventor of the reflecting telescope, was born at Aberdeen in 1638, and received his education at the Marischal college. In 1663, he published Optica promota, seu abdita Radiorum reflexorum et refractorum Mysteria, Geometrice enucleata (4to), explaining the idea of the telescope which bears his name; and, in 1664, visited London for the purpose of perfecting the mechanical construction of the instrument. Disappointed by the difficulty of getting a speculum ground and polished of a proper figure, he suspended his design, and set off on a tour to Italy. He staid some time at Padua, where he published, in 1667, a treatise on the Quadrature of the Circle and Hyperbola (reprinted at Venice, in 1668, with additions). On his return to England, he was chosen a fellow of the royal society, whose Transactions he enriched by some valuable papers. He was chosen professor of mathematics in the university of St. Andrew's, and, in 1674, was invited to fill the mathematical chair at Edinburgh, whither he removed; but, in October, 1675, while pointing out to his pupils the satellites of Jupiter, he was struck with a total blindness, and died a few days after, in the 37th year of his age.

GREGORY, David; nephew of the preceding, and the heir of his splendid talents, and emulator of his fame. The subject of this article was educated at Edinburgh, where, in 1684, he was elected professor of mathematics; and the same year he published a mathematical treatise from his uncle's papers, with important additions of his own. His lectures first introduced into the schools the Newtonian philosophy. In 1691, he was chosen professor of astronomy at Oxford, though he had the celebrated Halley for his competitor-a circumstance which laid the foundation of a friendly intimacy between these mathematicians. In 1695, he published, at Oxford, Catoptrica et Dioptrica Spherica Ele