tion, from one place to another, and suppose weeks and months to pass between the falling and rising of the curtain? Yet there is no doubt that the performance may make too great claims on our imagination. It is impossible to settle precisely the limits within which the dramatic writer should confine himself. As long as he can avoid offending the imagination by the abruptness of his transitions, he may be considered as not having overstepped the just bounds. The liberties allowed in the drama, as in all the higher branches of art, must depend very much on the genius of the artist. Since the revolution, particularly since 1814, a new dramatic school has been formed in France, which, departing from the ancient strictness of the classic drama, so called, approaches more and more to the German and English, or the romantic drama, so called. Madame de Staël, in her L'Allemagne, treats this subject at some length. We must refer the reader, for further information on this interesting subject, to Augustus William Schlegel's work, Ueber dramatische Kunst und Litteratur, Heidelberg, 1809 (On dramatic Art and Literature; translated into English, by John Black, London, 1815), which may be considered at once as a model of the higher species of criticism, and a specimen of German erudition and philosophy.

DRAMATURGY; the science which treats of the rules for composing a drama and representing it on the stage, as far as the subject can be brought under general rules. It comprehends the whole poetry of the drama, and the theory of dramatic representation. No work embracing the subject in its whole extent has yet been published. The splendid lectures of Schlegel on dramatic art and literature approach nearest to it. The first who published a work under this name was Lessing. Tieck's Dramaturgical Essays deserve to be mentioned here.

DRAPERY. (See Costume.)

DRAUGHT; the depth of a body of water necessary to float a ship; hence a ship is said to draw so many feet of water, when she is borne up by a column of water of that particular depth; for instance, if it requires a body of water whose depth is equal to 12 feet, to float or buoy up a ship on its surface, she is said to draw 12 feet water; and, that this draught may be more readily known, the feet are marked on the stem and sternpost from the keel upwards.

DRAUGHTS; a game played on a checkered board, like the chess-board, with 24

pieces, which, by angular movements, are enabled to take each other, according to certain rules, until one of the parties has lost all his men, or is placed in a situation to lose them all, when the game is at an end.

DRAWBACK, in commerce; an allowance made to merchants on the re-exportation of certain goods, which in some cases consists of the whole, in others of a part, of the duties which had been paid upon the importation. A still more equitable arrangement than that of drawbacks, is, to allow the merchant, who imports any commodity which he may probably wish to export again, to deposit it in the public warehouses, giving a bond for the payment of the duties, should be dispose of it for home consumption. This is called bonding, and is allowed to a considerable extent in England.

DRAWING, considered as a distinct branch of art, is the elder sister of painting, and, in the course of time, became connected with geometry. It is the art of representing, by means of lines, upon a flat surface, the forms of objects, and their positions and relations. The attempt to imitate, by lines, the forms which we see in nature, is the commencement of all drawing. According to a Greek tradition, drawing and sculpture took their rise together, when the daughter of Dibutades drew the outline of the shadow of her lover upon the wall, which her father cut out and modelled in clay. We can distinguish, in the earliest attempts at drawing, different epochs, which are found in almost all nations:-1. Objects were delineated only with rude, shapeless lines; e. g., an oval represented a head. 2. In order to make such drawings more striking to the eye, the sketch was filled up with black, or some other color, and then the eyes, eyebrows, nose, mouth and hair were marked with white upon the dark surface. To all these figures the name was attached, and, in general, explanatory words, such as we find upon all the old vases. This custom was continued by the Greeks, even in the most flourishing period of the art of drawing among them; for the figures of the great picture of Polygnotus, at Delphi, were designated by such inscriptions. In the 3d epoch, an attempt was made to give animation to pictures, by representing the different colors of the drapery; but, as yet, there was no attempt at perspective. In this manner Helen and Andromache embroidered tapestry, as described in the poems of Homer. In the 4th period, the want of

prominence in the figures was remarked. Ardices and Telephanes (probably fictitious names) began, by drawing lines in the back ground, to produce the appearance of shadow, and to give prominence to their figures. In later times, Polidoro di Caravaggio delineated in this way many frescoes in Rome, where he used only a single color, but produced the shading by lines drawn thus, in the manner called hatching. These works are called al sgrafito or peintures hachées. This manner of drawing, however, was very hard. Philocles and Cleanthes invented the monochrome, or picture with one color. In the monochrome, the color used was mixed with white, so that this resembled the manner that is now called en camayeu. This was the first step from drawing to proper painting, which is distinguished by having the back ground of the picture filled. The Greeks were very careful and particular in their instruction in drawing. Pamphilus, the teacher of Apelles, wished his pupils to remain with him 10 years. There were three stages of instruction: in the first, firmness of hand and of stroke was obtained, and the learners drew with styles upon tablets covered with wax; in the second, fineness and delicacy of stroke was studied, while the learner labored with the style upon smooth tablets, made of boxwood, and sometimes upon membranes, or upon the skins of wild beasts, properly prepared, and covered with wax. In the third stage, freedom and ease were to be acquired; here the pencil was used instead of the style, and with it black or red sketches were drawn upon white tablets, or white sketches upon black tablets. The tablets used were covered either with chalk or gypsum. Line-drawing was carried to the highest perfection, and was the glory of the greatest masters. The rivalship of Apelles and Protogenes in such lines, drawn with distinguished delicacy and skill, and displaying a master's hand, is well known. This fineness and clearness of outline is also the chief merit of the celebrated vase painters. Something hard and dry was found in the pictures executed on such outlines, and it may well be maintained that this manner of drawing, through the influence of the Byzantine school on the west of Europe, gave rise to the dry and meager style of the old Italian as well as of the old Dutch school.

When we consider the art of drawing as it exists at the present time, we perceive that the kinds of drawing are three with the pen, with crayons, and with Indian 26

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ink, or similar substances. Artists sometimes employ colored and sometimes white paper; in the former case, the lights are produced by white crayons; but in the latter case, they are produced by leaving the paper uncovered. The drawings with the pen have always something hard and disagreeable, yet they give steadiness and ease to the hand, and are peculiarly serviceable to landscape painters. There are two different ways of drawing with the pen; either the drawing is darkened on the shaded side with lines, or the outline only is given by the pen, and the shades are delicately touched in with India ink. This mode is peculiarly adapted to architectural drawings. The crayon drawings are the most common, and the most suitable for beginners, because any faults can be effaced or covered over. Artists make use of black, as well as of red crayons; and, when the ground is colored, they produce the light by means of white crayons. If the crayon is scraped, and the powder rubbed in with little rolls of paper or leather, the drawing becomes exceedingly delicate and agreeable, though its outline is deficient in strict precision. This manner, which, from the French name of the rolls used, is also called à l'estompe, is peculiarly suitable for large masses, and shades, and chiaroscuro, and for producing a harmonious effect of light. There are also crayon drawings, where the principal colors of the objects painted are delicately sketched with colored pencils. These are peculiarly suitable for portraits. To this kind of drawings belong likewise those made with lead and silver pencils, upon paper and parchment, which are suitable for the delicate delineation of small objects. In some cases, drawings of this description are softly touched with dry colors. There is another style of drawing, in which India ink, or sepia and bistre intermingled with carmine and indigo, are used. The lights are produced by leaving the white surface uncovered. This mode produces the finest effect, and is very much used in the representation of all kinds of subjects. There are various classes of drawings, as sketches, studies, academy figures, cartoons, &c. Sketches are the first ideas of the subject of a picture, thrown off hastily, to serve as the basis of a future drawing. They are made with charcoal, with the pen or the pencil. To the rapidity of their execution may be ascribed the animation perceptible in the sketches of great masters, of which there are rich collections. Studies are copies of single parts of subjects,

made either after life or from models; as heads, hands, feet, sometimes also whole figures. Drawings from skeletons and anatomical preparations, those of drapery, animals, plants, flowers, scenery, &c., are also called by this name. Academy figures are drawn from living models, who stand in academies of fine arts and other establishments, intended for the education of artists. The models, male and female, of all ages, are placed in different situations and attitudes, on an elevated spot, by lamp light. The pupils stand round and draw, under the direction of professors. Experienced painters and sculptors likewise continue to draw from living models, either in private or in company. The most perfect figures, of course, are selected. In order to study drapery, a little figure of wood, with movable limbs, is placed so that the student can draw from it. The drapery is often put on wet, that it may follow more closely the. form of the body, and that the folds may be more marked and expressive. Cartoons (q. v.) are drawings on gray paper, of the same size as the paintings which are to be copied from them. These are, for instance, large oil paintings, fresco pictures, &c. Artists make use, also, of other means, in order to transfer the outlines of a painting upon another canvass, if they wish to copy very faithfully. If the copy is to be on a larger or a smaller scale than the original, it is customary to place on each canvass frames of wood, the space enclosed by which is divided, by means of threads, into quadrangular compartments. The compartments on the original are larger or smaller than the others, as the case may be. The artist then draws in each square of his canvass what he finds in the corresponding square in the original. If the copy is intended to be precisely of the same size with the original, the outlines are often traced through a black gauze, from which they are afterwards transferred by pressure to the canvass of the copy. This, it is true, does not give any distinct forms, but it indicates precisely the spot where every object is to be placed, which saves much time. If the intention is to copy the outlines of the original exactly, it is necessary to make a calque, that is, a paper saturated with varnish, and quite transparent, which is put on the painting; the outlines are drawn; then the paper is blackened with crayons on one side, put on the new canvass, and the outlines are followed by some pointed instrument, and thus transferred to the canvass. It is evident, that it is never allowable to take a

copy in this way from very valuable pictures. The sketches of great masters are always valued very highly, because they show most distinctly the fire and boldness of their first conceptions. But for this very reason, because their excellence depends on the freedom with which they are thrown off, it is far more difficult to make copies from them than from finished paintings. The great schools in painting differ quite as much in respect to drawing as in respect to coloring. The style of drawing of the old Italian school is as hard, dry and meager as that of the old German school. The defects of the former are more often redeemed by beautiful forms and just proportions, whilst in the latter a meaning is frequently expressed which inclines more to poetry than to art. At a later period, the Roman school became, in Italy, through the influence of Raphael's exquisite sense of the beautiful and expressive in form, and through the study of the antique, the true model of beautiful drawing. The Florentine school strove to excel the Roman in this respect, and lost, by exaggeration, the superiority which it might, perhaps, otherwise have gained from its anatomical correctness and deep study of the art. The masters of the Florentine school often foreshorten too boldly. In the Lombard school, delicate drawing appears through enchanting coloring; but perhaps it is more true to nature and feeling than to scientific rules. The Venetian school, in reference to the other schools of Italy, has many points of resemblance, good and bad, with the Dutch school, in reference to Germany. In the Venetian school, the drawing is often lost in the glow and power of the coloring; and it is very often not the nobleness of the figures and ideas in the drawing, but the richness, boldness and glowing nature of the painting, which delight us. The French school was, in Poussin's time, very correct in drawing; and he was justly called the French Raphael. At a later period, the style of this school became maniéré. David introduced again a purer taste in drawing, and a deep study of the antique. This study of the antique, together with the precision of their drawing, are the distinguishing characteristics of the modern French school. In Germany, there cannot be said to be any general style of drawing peculiar to her artists. The many distinguished artists of that country have formed themselves individually, by the study of nature and works of art; and whilst some of the most celebrated painters are distinguished for cor

rect drawing, others are reproached for the want of it, in some of their finest pictures. On the whole, their drawing is not so correct as that of the French. Many young German artists unfortunately consider the naïveté of the ancient masters of their country as beauty, and strive to imitate it.

DRAWING SLATE, sometimes called black chalk, is a fine-grained, soft stone, pretty nearly allied to clay slate or argillite, a rock along with which it always occurs. It adheres slightly to the tongue, and feels fine and rather meager. It soils more or less, and writes; hence its use as a marking or drawing material. The best kind comes from Italy, Spain and France.

DRAYTON, William Henry, a statesman of the American revolution, and an able political writer, was born in South Carolina, in September, 1742. In 1753, he went to England, and was placed in Westminster school; thence he removed, in 1761, to Oxford, where he continued nearly three years, when he returned to South Carolina. In 1771, he was appointed, by the British government, privy counsellor for the province, and became conspicuous by his defence of the rights of his country against the encroachments and irregularities of the crown officers and judges. In 1774, he accepted the office of an assistant judge of the province. When the continental congress was about to sit at Philadelphia, he wrote and published a pamphlet under the signature of Freeman, a production, of which Ramsay, in his History of South Carolina, observes, that "it substantially chalked out the line of conduct adopted by the congress." The lieutenant-governor suspended him from his place in the king's council, in consequence of his representation of American grievances, and the "bill of American rights," which he submitted to the congress in his pamphlet. As soon as the revolution began, he became an efficient leader, and, in 1775, was chosen president of the provincial congress. In March of the next year, he was elected chief justice of the colony, in which character he delivered to the grand jury political charges of the most energetic character. He published, besides, a pamphlet, refuting the suggestions in favor of lord Howe's plan of a reconciliation with the mother country. Independence-unqualified independence -was his constant advice. In the year 1777, Mr. Drayton was invested with full powers, as president of South Carolina, and, early in the following year, was elect

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ed a delegate to the continental congress. In this body he took a prominent part. His speeches and writings against the propositions of the three British commissioners were particularly celebrated. The congress employed him on various important missions. The censure which he pronounced upon major-general Charles Lee's conduct at the battle of Monmouth, caused that officer to challenge him. The reasons which he assigned for declining the duel are such as became a true patriot and honorable man.-Mr. Drayton continued in congress until September, 1779, when he died suddenly at Philadelphia, in the thirty-sixth year of his age. His political resolution and sagacity, his literary attainments, his domestic virtues, and his polished manners, rendered him valuable to his country, and dear to all his associates. He left behind a considerable body of historical materials, which his only son, John Drayton, revised and digested, and published at Charleston, in 1821, in two octavo volumes, under the title of Memoirs of the American Revolution, from its Commencement to the Year 1776, inclusive, as relating to the State of South Carolina, and occasionally referring to the States of North Carolina and Georgia. The work is much esteemed.

DREBBEL, Cornelius; a natural philosopher and philosophical instrument maker, born at Alkmaer, in North Holland, in 1572, possessed a great spirit of observation, and a sufficient fortune to enable him to perform his mechanical and optical experiments. He soon became so famous, that the emperor of Germany, Ferdinand II, intrusted to him the instruction of his sons, and appointed him imperial counsellor. In the troubles of 1620, he was made prisoner by the troops of Frederic V, elector palatine, and plundered of his property. He was liberated by the interference of James I of England, the fatherin-law of Frederic, who delighted in the conversation of learned men, and to whose court he repaired. From this time, he lived in London, constantly occupied in scientific pursuits, and died there in 1634. The accounts which his contemporaries give of his experiments are not to be trusted, on account of the ignorance and credulity of the time. It is certain that, in mechanics and optics, he possessed great knowledge for the age. He invented several mathematical instruments, and the thermometer (about 1630), which Halley, Fahrenheit and Réaumur afterward brought to perfection. The invention of telescopes, which has been also attributed

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to him, probably belongs to Zachariah Janson (1590). His Tractatus de Natura Elementorum et Quinta Essentia, published by Joh. Ernst Burggrav, Leyden, 1608, passed through several editions. His Epistola de Machina Astronomica perpetuo mobili, was published at Leyden, 1620, by Joach. Morsius. A letter in German to the emperor Rodolph II, in which he describes an instrument of his called Machina musica perpetuo mobilis, is contained in Harsdorffer's Delicia physico-mathematica, 2d vol.

DRESDEN, one of the finest places of Germany, the residence of the kings of Saxony, is situated in the circle of Meissen, on the Elbe, which separates Dresden Proper from the Neustadt (New Town). Dresden has more than 55,000 inhabitants. It consists of the Royal Residence or Dresden Proper, and the Neustadt (so called since 1732, and handsomely built since the time of Augustus II, formerly Old Dresden), and of Friederichstadt (formerly Ostra, laid out since 1670). Among the objects worthy of notice are, the stone bridge across the Elbe, 552 feet long, consisting of 16 arches, with a raised footpath of flag stones, round stone seats and an iron railing; the equestrian statue of Augustus II, erected in 1736, in the Neustadt, made of gilt bronze; the Catholic church for the court, and several pictures; among others, the Ascension of Christ, by Mengs; the famous gallery of pictures; the royal library, and the cabinet of antiques, together with a collection of porcelain, and the first attempts of Böttcher; the gallery of the casts of Mengs (besides the antiques); the cabinet of natural history; the arsenal, and the cabinet of works of art; the great garden; the garden of Brühl, with a small collection of pictures. In the vicinity of Dresden, the Plauensche Grund (valley of Plauen) and the vale of Seifersdorf are well known to the lovers of nature. Besides these, may be mentioned the royal summer residence, Pilnitz; the fortress of Königstein; the Sonnenstein (at present an insane hospital); the Saxon Switzerland (q. v.); and the heights of Kesselsdorf, rendered famous by a battle in the seven years' war. The city suffered much in this war. In 1760, it was bombarded by Frederic the Great nine days, and has been frequently exposed to the devastations of war. The importance of its situation occasioned the building of a fort, probably as early as the 9th century. The Austrians occupied the city in 1809 without injuring it. In the following years, they commenced pulling down the

fortifications, but desisted from it on the breaking out of the Russian war. Marshal Davoust caused a pier and two arches of the bridge to be blown up (March 19, 1813), which the Russian government rebuilt in 1814. The campaign of 1813 was most ruinous for the city and its environs. After nine years of war and suffering, on the 7th of June, 1815, peace and industry returned to the German Florence, as Herder calls Dresden. Since that time, dwelling-houses, gardens and parks have taken the place of the former fortifications. The city is also distinguished for its excellent literary institutions, among which are the surgical and medical academy, and a veterinary school, which is connected with it; the military academy; the academy for noblemen, established since 1725; the academy of fine arts, with a school for architecture. The last academy, enlarged since 1763, has a branch in Leipsic, and an exhibition yearly (3d of August).-We may here say a few words on the collections of art. The gallery of pictures, one of the finest in the world, was begun very early, but first became of much importance under Augustus II, king of Poland and elector of Saxony. It owes its most valuable treasures, however, to Augustus III, a prodigal monarch, who exhausted his country by his extravagances. He purchased the gallery of pictures of Modena for $912,000, and many single pictures; among them Raphael's masterpiece, the Madonna di Sisto. The gallery is rich in pictures of the different schools, with the exception of the old German. From the Dutch school there are, among others, 30 Rubens, 18 Van Dykes, many Rembrandts, Ostades, Gerard Dows, Tenniers, Wouvermanns, &c. Of the old German school, Holbein's Madonna, a sublime work, is particularly distinguished. Of the French school, there are many Claude Lorraines, Poussins, Le Bruns and others. the Italian school, the gallery is rich in pictures of Correggio, including his famous Night; of Raphael, the Madonna di Sisto, the Madonna della Seggiola and others. There are also works of Leonardo da Vinci, Giulio Romano, Andrea del Sarto Battoni, Titian (his famous Venus), Garofalo, Paul Veronese, Guido Reni, Carracci, Carlo Dolce, and every distinguished Italian painter. There are 150 pieces in pastel. This collection is liberally open every day to all visitors. Six pieces of tapestry, from designs by Raphael, a present from pope Leo X, which were lost, have lately been found again. The gal

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