and of Livia (afterwards wife of the emperor Augustus), and brother of Tiberius, who was afterwards emperor, was sent as questor, with his brother, against the Rhætians, whom he subdued. He then suppressed an insurrection in Gaul, defeated the Germans who dwelt beyond the Rhine, passed the river, and vanquished the Sicambri and Bructeri, and made the Frisians tributary to the Romans. He was the first Roman general who ventured upon the Northern ocean. After these campaigns, he became pretor (11 B. C.), but returned in the next spring to Germany, subdued many tribes as far as the Weser, and commenced the erection of fortresses. On this account, he was honored with an ovation at Rome, and was appointed proconsul; the army saluted him with the title of imperator, which was not, however, sanctioned by Augustus. B. C. 9, he was made consul, but returned soon after to Germany, and penetrated as far as the Elbe, but was unable to pass the river. He, however, ordered trophies to be erected there, to testify his progress. He died in the same year, while on his return, in the 30th year of his age. The canal, uniting the Rhine with the Yssel, was his work; and the place called Drusenheim, in Alsace, where he encamped for some time, received its name from him. By his wife Antonia, he had a daughter, Livia, and two sons, Germanicus and Claudius, who afterwards became emperors. Rome lost, in Drusus, a man equally distinguished in the field and the council, and one of her most virtuous and noble citizens. (See A. Benedict Wilhelm's work, Die Feldzüge des Nero Claudius Drusus in dem nördl. Deutschl. (Halle, 1826).

DRYADS; Wood-nymphs, in the mythology of the Arcadian Greeks; supposed to be the tutelar deities of trees in groves, particularly of the oak; hence their name. DRYDEN, John, one of the most eminent English poets, was born, according to the most probable accounts, on the 9th of August, 1631, in the parish of AldwinkleAll-Saints, in Northamptonshire. His father possessed a small estate, and acted as a justice of the peace during the protectorate. The subject of this article, his eldest son, received his early education in the country, and was then removed to Westminster school, whence he was elected to a scholarship in Trinity college, Cambridge, and took his degree of bachelor of arts. His father dying in 1654, he succeeded to the possession of his estate, subject, however, to considerable deduc

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tions for the widow and younger children. He immediately removed to London, under the auspices of his relation, sir Gilbert Pickering, one of Cromwell's council and house of lords. On the death of Oliver, he wrote his celebrated Heroic Stanzas on that event-one of the first of his poems, that evinced the loftiness of expression and imagery which characterize his maturer efforts. At the restoration, he greeted the king's return in a poem, entitled Astraa Redux, which was quickly followed by a Panegyric on the Coronation. In 1661, he produced his first play, the Duke of Guise, and, in the next year, the Wild Gallant. In 1662, also, appeared his poem addressed to the chancellor Hyde, and his Satire on the Dutch. Setting aside the drama, to which his attention was unremitting, his next publication of consequence was the Annus mırabilis, published in 1667. His reputation, both as a poet and a royalist, was by this time so well established, that, on the death of sir William Davenant, he was appointed poet laureate and historiographer, with a salary of £200 per annum. after published his Essay on Dramatic Poesy, which he had written in 1665, in his retirement, during the plague; previously to which he had married lady Elizabeth Howard, daughter of the earl of Berkshire. He now became professionally a writer for the stage, by entering into a contract with the patentees of the king's theatre, to supply three plays a year. The earlier dramatic productions of Dryden were written in rhyme-a circumstance which favored the rant that disfigured them in common with most of the tragedies of the day. To correct this fault, Villiers, duke of Buckingham, in conjunction with other wits, composed the Rehearsal, in which celebrated burlesque Dryden was openly ridiculed, in the character of Bayes. In 1679, he joined lord Mulgrave, in an Essay on Satire; and, in 1681, at the express desire of Charles II, he composed his famous political poem, entitled Absalom and Achitophel, in which the incidents of the rebellion of Absalom against David are admirably applied to Charles II, the duke of Monmouth and the intriguing earl of Shaftesbury. The severity of this production raised him innumerable enemies, whom he still further enraged by his Medal, a Satire on Sedition, written on the occasion of a medal struck by the whig party, when an indictment against Shaftesbury for high treason was declared ignoramus. The rancor of the last production is not easily to be

paralleled. Having succeeded so well in political, he next essayed literary satire, attacking Shadwell in his Mac Flecknoe. Soon after appeared his Religio Laici, a compendious view of the arguments in favor of revelation. With all his ability and industry, Dryden suffered the anxiety attendant on straitened circumstances. He next published some classical translations, and two volumes of Miscellany Poems; and, on the death of the king, composed his Threnodia Augustalis, a Funeral Poem. On the accession of James II, he conformed to the religion of the new sovereign. One of the fruits of this conversion, was his controversial poem of the Hind and the Panther, the very absurdity of the plan of which, overcome as it is by the force and beauty of the versification and execution, is highly honorable to the poetic talents of Dryden. By the loss of his places and pensions, in consequence of the revolution, he had nothing to trust to but his literary industry; and, during the ten concluding years of his life, when he wrote actually for bread, and at so much per line, he produced some of the pieces which have most contributed to his well established fame. Passing over his translations of Juvenal and Persius, and various minor works, it may be observed that he commenced his celebrated translation of Virgil in 1694, and it was sent to the press in 1697. He is supposed to have received £1300 for this hasty but able translation. Soon after the appearance of Virgil, he was solicited to write a second ode for St. Cecilia's day, which request produced his admirable Alexander's Feast, the finest lyric poem in the English language. He then undertook to modernize Chaucer's Tales, contracting with a bookseller to furnish 10,000 lines for £300. This bargain produced the collection called his Fables, some of the most poetical pieces he ever composed. He soon after declined in health. The immediate cause of his death was an inflammation in one of his toes, which, terminating in a mortification, put an end to his life May 1, 1700. The body of this great poet was interred in Westminster abbey, next to that of Chaucer. The place was, for some time, undistinguished by a monument, until a plain one, with his bust, was erected by Sheffield, duke of Buckingham. Although reserved and saturnine, Dryden was friendly and humane, domestic in his habits, and affectionate towards his family. That the pen of such a man should be so freely prostituted to party rancor and venal panegyric,

appears surprising; and it is equally so, that, although regular in his own manners, few went beyond him in the dramatic licentiousness of the age. His narrow circumstances may have occasioned, but are not a sufficient apology for these blemishes. As a dramatic poet, he has wit, force and majesty, but very little of nature or propriety. His comedy, with the exception of the Spanish Friar, is altogether inferior; and, of all his tragedies, Don Sebastian and All for Love alone are spoken of at present. He stands unrivalled in point of versification, and, in fulness and variety of harmony, and a fine flowing and resistless current of numbers, he has never been surpassed. His style in prose, chiefly exhibited in the critical essays prefixed to his works, forms an excellent specimen of genuine English composition. Of recent editions of his works, we may refer to the prose works, by Malone (1800, 4 vols., 8vo.); his poetical works, edited by Todd, with notes by Warton (1812, 4 vols., 8vo.); and the whole of his works, by sir Walter Scott (1818, 18 vols., 8vo.).

DRY-ROT; a term or name applied to a rapid decay of any vegetable matter, when it has the appearance of being tolerably dry, but, in general, is applied only to timber when in that state, and is so named in contradistinction to the common mode of decay, by being exposed to the alternate states of wet and dry. There are a great number of causes for this species of decay: some are quite simple, others are very complicated; yet, whatever may be the original cause, simple or compound, the effects are the same, namely, to render the timber useless, by destroying its elasticity and toughness, rendering it insufficient to resist any considerable pressure, and, indeed, for any of the useful purposes to which timber is applied. When timber is in a tolerably dry state, any means which will absorb or extract its oxygen from the other component parts will leave it in the state commonly called dry rotten. Moist, warm situations, with little or no current of air, are the most likely to generate this evil. The effluvia from timber in such a state of decay will rapidly carry its effects to the circumjacent timber, however dry it may appear; and any sort of timber will be, in a very little time, rendered quite useless. When timber is exposed to any considerable degree of moisture and heat, fungi of various shapes and texture, according to the species of timber, and other causes, will appear upon it; and although

this fungous matter be really an effect of the dry-rot, yet it is as truly a cause of the same evil. There are no means of restoring rotten timber to a sound state, and the dry-rot can only be cured, as it is called, by removing the decayed and affected parts, clearing away all the fungi, and destroying its vegetating principle, with which the hard materials, such as bricks or stone, may have been impregnated. For this purpose, a strong solution of iron, copper, or zinc, is used with advantage. This, with the admission of a large quantity of air, is very advantageous. Many persons have written on the subject; and the nostrums proposed are as numerous as their authors. But no means of checking the evil can be depended upon, except that of removing the corrupted and contagious matter, and admitting a free circulation of air. Much also may be done by cutting timber in winter, and properly seasoning it, by steeping it in water for some time, and then thoroughly drying it before it is used in building.

DSHAMY; a Persian poet. (See Jami.)

DSHINGIS KHAN. (See Gengis Khan.) DUAL, in grammar; that number which is used, in some languages, to designate two things, whilst another number (the plural) exists to express many. The dual, in some languages, is a firmly established grammatical forin, as in the Attic dialect; in other languages, it is used only in certain cases, with certain words, or only faint traces of it are to be recognised. The Sanscrit has a dual number. Of modern languages which have a literature, Arabic is the only idiom which has retained it. That copious language has a dual, to designate two things; a particular plural form, to express from three to nine objects; the plural, for several of any number whatever; and the plural-plural, formed from the plural (though only in some words), to designate ten or any larger or indefinite number. Even for substantives which express a number of things, as a species of animals or plants, the Arabians have a characteristical singular, of which also a plural may be made. (See Silvestre de Sacy's Grammaire Arabe, tom. i., pp. 702, 704, 710.) In the American languages, traces of the dual are very often met with, from Greenland to Araucania. (See William von Humboldt's Discourse Ueber den Dualis, read in the academy of sciences at Berlin, April 26, 1827, printed at Berlin, 1828; a treatise which does not pretend to exhaust the

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subject, but will assist a scholar in making further investigations.)

DUALISM; DUALIST. 1. Dualism is the philosophical exposition of the nature of things by the adoption of two dissimilar primitive principles, not derived from each other: such, for instance, are the ideal and the real, or the material and the thinking substance. Dualism may be either dogmatical, or critical, or sceptical. In a stricter sense, dualism is confined to (a) the adoption of two fundamental beings, a good and an evil one, as is done in the Oriental religions; (b), to the adoption of two different principles in man, viz., a spiritual and a corporeal principle: this is called the psychological dualism. He who embraces this view is called a dualist. Opposed to the system of dualism is monism, which is either idealism or realism, spiritualism or materialism. 2. In theology, dualism is the doctrine of those who maintain that only certain elected persons are capable of admission to eternal happiness, and that all the rest will be subjected to eternal condemnation.

DUBLIN, the metropolis of Ireland, is situated in the province of Leinster and county of Dublin, within a mile of the bay of that name, which is of a circular form, and about six miles in diameter, and into which the river Liffey runs, after dividing the city, through which its course is nearly west to east, into equal parts. Though spacious, this bay is neither commodious nor safe, particularly in winter. Its defects are, in part, remedied by a magnificent wall of stone, which runs out into the bay the distance of 8564 yards, and is terminated by a light-house. On the opposite side of the harbor is another light-house, together with a pier and harbor; and, lately, a pier has been begun at Dunleary, a village on the south side of the bay, and two and a half miles within its mouth. From the point of Ringsend, where the Liffey enters the bay, it is embanked on either side with a noble wall of freestone, forming a range of beautiful and spacious quays through the whole city. The river is crossed in its course through the city by seven stone bridges. Dublin is, besides, nearly insulated by two canals, which give great advantages for inland communication. The houses, with the exception of the principal public structures, are generally brick, and from three to five stories high. In the old part of the city, the streets are irregular, although those which range parallel to, and at right angles with, the Liffey, are uniform and

capacious. Few cities of its size can boast of a greater number of magnificent and useful buildings. The castle, which was completed and flanked with towers in 1213, is situated about the centre of the city, and is the seat of government. The castle chapel, recently rebuilt, is an exquisite specimen of Gothic architecture. The other public buildings are, the royal exchange, the commercial buildings, the corn exchange or burgh-quay, the linen hall, the custom-house (in front 375 by 209 feet), the stamp-office, the post-office, and the parliament house (now converted into the national bank). Opposite to the east front of the custom-house are the government wet docks; and adjacent to the post-office is Nelson's pillar, raised to the height of 130 feet. In the centre of college-green is an equestrian statue of William III, erected in 1701. In the Phoenix park, an obelisk, 210 feet high, has been erected in honor of the duke of Wellington. On the east side of college-green is the grand front of Trinity college, which is of Portland stone, of the Corinthian order. This building extends in depth 600 feet. The park is in the rear of the college, and contains 254 acres, adorned with fine trees. Dublin university (viz., its provost, fellows, and scholars arrived at 21 years of age) returned two members to the parliament of Ireland, and still returns one to that of the United Kingdom. Dublin contains 19 parishes, 2 cathedrals, 19 parish churches, besides several chapels of the established religion; 2 meetinghouses of the church of Scotland, 7 of other dissenters, 4 of Methodists, 2 of Quakers, 1 Lutheran Danish, 1 French Calvinist, and about 26 Roman Catholic chapels. St. Patrick's cathedral is an antique building, in a low and ruinous part of the town, erected in 1190, decorated with a steeple in 1370, and a very lofty spire in 1750. Christ church, built in 1038, the ancient cathedral of Dublin, is another venerable pile, containing some curious monuments. St. George's church is a superb edifice, lately built, with a magnificent front and lofty spire. No city, for its size, abounds more in charitable institutions. These are, in general, well endowed, and some of them are splendid buildings. The royal barracks are in the west end of the town, near the river. At the west of the city, opposite to the Phoenix park, is the royal hospital of Kilmainham, for the reception of disabled and superannuated soldiers, on the plan of the Chelsea hospital. Dublin is a corporate body, with a chief magistrate, who

has the title of lord mayor, elected annually from the aldermen, who are 25 in number, elected for life from citizens who have served as sheriffs: two sheriffs are chosen annually from the common council, who are 96 in number, and are triennially elected from their respective guilds by the freemen, a very numerous body, amounting to perhaps 2000. The freemen of Dublin, in conjunction with its freeholders, also return two members to the united parliament. Population, 185,881; 60 miles W. of Holyhead in Wales, and 330 N. W. London; lon. 6° 15 W.; lat. 53° 21′ N.

DUBOIS, William, cardinal, prime minister of the duke of Orleans, regent of France, was the son of an apothecary, and was born in 1656, in a small town in the province of Limousin. At the age of 12 years, he was sent to Paris; and, after having studied in the college of St. Michael, he obtained the place of private tutor. He afterwards became acquainted with the sub-tutor of the duke of Chartres, M. de St. Laurent, who, having become infirm, was assisted in his duties by Dubois. Dubois ingratiated himself into the favor of his pupil, and, after the death of St. Laurent, was chosen to succeed him. From this time he played two parts-that of a tutor and that of a pimp to his young master. Louis XIV wished to marry his nephew to his natural daughter, Mlle. de Blois. Monsieur, the king's brother, was not averse to the match, but the king was too well acquainted with the haughty spirit of the duchess to expect her consent. Dubois was therefore employed to gain her and the young prince. His address was successful, and he was rewarded with the abbey of St. Just, in Picardy. Louis, who had become sensible of his talents, allowed him to join the French ambassador at London. Here the chevalier Dubois made some important acquaintances, through the influence of St. Evremont. He was particularly connected with lord Stanhope, whose friendship was the source of his future fortune. Dubois returned to France, and, under the modest title of a secretary, soon became the privy counsellor of the duke of Orleans, and overseer of his household. He encountered, with success, the numerous obstacles and enemies opposed to his advancement. In 1715, the duke was declared regent ; and Dubois, not less ambitious than artful, now ventured to indulge extravagant hopes. In spite of the opposition of the most influential persons, he was appointed by the duke counsellor of state. The intrigues of the Spanish court, at that time under the direction of

the cardinal Alberoni, gave the duke much trouble, and made him desirous of a powerful ally. Dubois directed his attention towards England, and offered to conduct a secret negotiation with the court of that country. His acquaintance with lord Stanhope was now very useful to him. He succeeded in overcoming the dislike of George I to the person of the regent, and, in 1718, concluded the triple alliance between England, France and Holland. It has been asserted that Dubois sold himself to England; but this is not true; on the contrary, it was necessary for him to buy others, to succeed in his negotiations. He was rewarded by the place of minister of foreign affairs, and now began to aspire to the highest dignities of the church. The archbishopric of Cambray having become vacant, Dubois ventured to request it of the regent, although he was not even a priest. The regent was astonished at his boldness; but, as the king of England united with Dubois in his request, he obtained it, and, in one morning, received all the orders, and, a few days after, the archbishopric. By his consummate address, he obtained a cardinal's hat, and, in 1722, was appointed prime minister. His power had now no bounds; but his excesses had rendered him infirm. He was scarcely able to get in and out of his carriage, and yet he appeared on horseback for the sake of receiving military honors at a review. The exertion caused an internal injury, of which he died Aug. 10, 1723. The duke of St. Simon has given an accurate picture of him: "Dubois was a little, thin, meager man, with a polecat visage. All the vices, falsehood, avarice, licentiousness, ambition, and the meanest flattery, contended in him for the mastery. He lied to such a degree as to deny his own actions, when taken in the fact. Notwithstanding an affected stammering, which he had adopted for the purpose of gaining time to penetrate the motives of others, his rich, instructive and insinuating conversation would have rendered him agreeable, had it not been for the mist of falsehood which issued from every pore, and rendered even his gayety unpleasant. In spite of his debauchery, he was very industrious. His wealth was immense, and his revenue amounted to millions. His memory was hated and ridiculed. Even the inscription on his tomb is a satire; for, after enumerating all his offices and dignities, it concludes, solidiora et stabiliora bona, viator, mortuo precare."

DUBOS, Jean Baptiste; one of the ear

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liest French writers who endeavored to found a theory of the arts on general principles. He enriched the theory of the arts by his comparison of poetry, painting and music (Reflexions sur la Poésie, la Peinture et la Musique, Paris, 1719; 6th ed., 1755, in 3 vols.). The foundation on which he rested his theory was, the necessity which every one feels of exercising the powers of his mind, and of setting his invention at work. He was born at Beauvais, in 1670, studied there and at Paris, and was placed, in 1695, in the office of foreign affairs, under the minister De Torcy, who gave him important commissions in Germany, Italy, England and Holland. In these journeys, he collected the information concerning the arts which his book contains. After his return to France, he obtained a benefice, a pension, and, in 1722, was elected perpetual secretary of the French academy. He distinguished himself as a historian by his Histoire de la Ligue de Cambray (Paris, 1721, 2 vols., 12mo.), and by his Histoire critique de l'Etablissement de la Monarchie Française dans les Gaules (Amsterdam, 1743, 2 vols., 4to. and 12mo.). Voltaire ranks him among the writers who were an honor to the age of Louis XIV. He died at Paris, 1742.

DUCANGE. (See Dufresne.)

DUCAT is a gold or silver coin. For its value, see Coins.-In Switzerland, ducats are called Schildfranken. The Dutch ducats, which are coined in great numbers, are the most used in commerce, and are to be found in all quarters of the world. In the northern countries of Europe, and particularly in Russia, the dealings in money and goods are carried on mostly by means of this coin. The exportation of ducats is, therefore, an important branch of Dutch commerce. This coin and the name are derived from Longinus, a duke of Ravenna, in the 6th century: the first issue of them has also been ascribed to St. Roger II, of Apulia, who, in 1140, coined ducats bearing the figure of Christ, and the inscription, Sit tibi, Christe, datus, quem tu regis, iste ducatus. The Venetians took his ducats for their pattern in 1280: they were found to constitute a convenient medium of exchange, were adopted by Genoa, and thus came into general use. This standard of coin was also adopted in Hungary; and, for a long time, all foreign coins bore the name of Ongri or Hungarians, in Italy, where the trade of the world was, at this period, concentrated. They were, in many kinds of business, the favorite standard of reck