of the government. Dupin's Forces productives et commerciales de la France appeared at Paris, 1827, 1 vol. 4to. Dupin was a member of the chamber which was dissolved in 1830.

DUPONT DE NEMOURS, Pierre Samuel, born at Paris, December, 1739, distinguished as well for his knowledge and talents as for his mild and benevolent character, his excellent principles and his blameless life, lived almost unknown, at Paris, as a private man of letters, until 1773, when his principles of philosophy and political economy, set forth in his Les Éphémérides du Citoyen, excited the displeasure of the minister Choiseul, and obliged him to leave France. Several foreign princes offered him a reception, and conferred honors upon him. He returned, however, to his native country, and accepted of a small place, given him by Turgot, minister of finance. In 1782 and 1783, with doctor Hutton, the English agent, he negotiated the basis of the treaty by which the independence of the United States was acknowledged. As inspectorgeneral of commerce and manufactures, and as a counsellor of state, he afterwards did much to encourage French industry. In 1787 and 1788, he was appointed, by Louis XVI, secretary to the assembly of the notables. In 1789, he became a member of the first national assembly, where he distinguished himself by his principles, his courage, his talents, and his firm opposition to the intrigues of factions. He was twice president of the national assembly, and always supported moderate principles. Under Robespierre, he was imprisoned, and nothing but the fall of the tyrant preserved him. He was afterwards a member of the council of elders. After the directory was abolished, he went to America, in 1798. In 1802, he returned to France, but did not, at that time, take any office, notwithstanding the offers made him by Napoleon. The confidence of his fellow citizens followed him in his retirement, as was shown by his appointment to several important offices. In 1814, Dupont was made secretary of the provisional government which prepared the way for the return of the house of Bourbon to the throne of France. After Napoleon's return from Elba, he went again to America, of which country his two sons had already become citizens. Here he terminated his useful life, August 6, 1817, at the advanced age of 78.

DUPONT DE L'ETANG. (See Baylen.) DUPUIS, Charles François, a member of the national institute, born at Trie-le

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Chateau, near Gisors, in 1742, was instructed by his father in mathematics and surveying. The duke de la Rochefoucault sent him to the college d'Harcourt, to pursue his studies; and, in his 24th year, he was made professor of rhetoric at Lisieux. His intimacy with Lalande, and his own inclination, led him to devote himself particularly to mathematics; the knowledge and the prejudices of that learned man had a great influence on him. In 1778, he invented the telegraph, which was afterwards improved by the brothers Chappe. His Mémoire sur l'Origine des Constellations et sur l'Explication de la fable par l'Astronomie (1781), is full of originality and learning. In 1788, he became a member of the académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres, and went to Paris, where he was named one of the four commissioners of public instruction, to ascertain the resources of all the institutions for education and learning in Paris. As a member of the national convention, he was constant in his support of moderate measures. On this account, he was chosen a member of the council of five hundred; and the reputation which he there acquired for activity and information, procured him admission into the national institute. The tribunat and the legislative body proposed him as a senator. His work, Origine de tous les Cultes, ou la Réligion universelle (1794, 3 vols., 4to., with an atlas), was severely criticised in Germany, Holland, France and Italy, but is a remarkable monument of his learning. In this work, he attempted to explain, not only all the mysteries of antiquity, but also the origin of all religious traditions. An abridgment, in one volume, afterwards followed. His two works on the Pelasgi, their origin in Ethiopia, their spreading over Lybia, Cyrenaïca, and the north of Africa, and thence to Spain, Greece and Italy, attracted great attention. His treatises on the zodiac of Denderah (q. v.), and on the Phoenix, succeeded. In his last work, Mémoire explicatif du Zodiaque chronologique et mythologique (1806, 4to., engravings), he maintained that the astronomical and religious opinions of the Greeks, Egyptians, Chinese, Persians and Arabians, had a common origin. He died at his estate near Dijon, 1809, 77 years old, and left, in manuscript, a work on cosmogony and theogony, the object of which was to confirm the theory he had laid down in his Origine de tous les Cultes. He also endeavored, in this work, to explain hieroglyphics.

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DUPUYTREN, Guillaume; the most distinguished French surgeon of our time, professor of medical science in the faculty of medicine in Paris, and chief surgeon in the Hotel Dieu; born 1778, at PierreBuffière. He made such rapid progress in his studies that, in his 17th year, he was appointed prosector in the Ecole de Santé, at Paris, and, soon after, lectured on surgery and anatomy to large audiences. In 1802, he was made second surgeon in the Hotel Dieu, and, in 1815, became the head of this great hospital. As an operative surgeon, he has gained great reputation by his boldness and skill, and the improvements which he has introduced. He has invented some new instruments, and improved others; as, for instance, his speculum, for the removal of the uterine polypus by cauterization, and his instrument for couching; we are also indebted to him for some valuable discoveries in pathological anatomy. He has written several surgical treatises, some of which have been published singly, and some are collected.

DUQUESNE, Abraham, a French admiral, under Louis XIV, was born at Dieppe, in 1610, and acquired his knowledge of naval affairs under his father, who was an experienced captain. In his 17th year, he was in the sea-fight off Rochelle, and distinguished himself, during and after the year 1637, in the war against Spain. In 1644, he entered the service of Sweden. He was recalled, in 1647, to France, and commanded the expedition against Naples. Bordeaux, which had rebelled, he reduced, notwithstanding the assistance afforded it by Spain. In the Sicilian war, he thrice defeated the combined fleets of Holland and Spain, under the renowned De Ruyter. After he had reduced Algiers and Genoa to the necessity of supplicating the mercy of Louis XIV, the king conferred upon him the fine estate of Bouchet, and made it a marquisate, with the title of Duquesne. More than this he could not do, because Duquesne was a Protestant. He was, also, the only person exempted from the banishment of his sect, occasioned by the repeal of the edict of Nantes. He died at Paris, in 1688. Mildness and modesty tempered his heroic character; and De Ruyter was his model. He left four sons, of whom the most famous, Henry, marquis of Duquesne, was also distinguished as a naval character.

DURANGO; a town in Mexico, capital of the province of New Biscay, or Durango; 335 miles N. W. Mexico; lon.

103° 35′ W.; lat. 24° 25′ N.: population, according to Humboldt, 12,000; according to Pike, 40,000. It is a bishop's see. The town is situated on an elevation, 6845 feet above the sea. The air is healthy, the surrounding country fertile, producing an abundance of wheat, maize, fruits, &c., and the trade of the town is considerable.

DURANTE, Francesco, a celebrated composer, born 1693, at Naples, received his first instruction from the famous Alexander Scarlatti. The fame of Pasquini and Pittoni drew him to Rome, whither he went to perfect himself in the knowledge of counterpoint. He then returned to Naples, as maestro di capella (director of the musical choir), and composed, almost exclusively, for the church. In vocal church music, he attained a high degree of eminence. He also educated the most celebrated musical masters of the 18th century in Naples Pergolese, Sacchini, Piccini, Guglielini, Traetta, Jomelli, &c.— and died at Naples, 1755, at the age of 62.

DÜRER, Albert; born at Nuremberg, 1471. His father was a skilful goldsmith of Hungary, and himself instructed his son Albert. Dürer's talent early developed itself; and, although he had made great progress in his father's profession by the time he was 15, his inclination took a decided turn for painting. Michael Wohlgemuth, then the best painter in Nuremberg, became his instructer in 1486. Having finished his studies, he entered upon his travels, and, in 1490, travelled through Germany and Alsace. In 1492, he passed through Colmar and Basle, and, in 1494, returned home. Here he executed his masterpiece, a drawing of Orpheus. To please his father, he married the daughter of Hans Fritz, a celebrated mechanic; but this connexion imbittered his life, and perhaps brought him to an early grave. In 1505, he went to Venice to accomplish himself in his art. His abilities excited envy and admiration. He painted the Martyrdom of Bartholomew, for St. Mark's church, which painting was purchased by the emperor Rodolph, and removed to Prague. He also travelled to Bologna, to improve his knowledge of perspective. This journey had no effect upon his style. At his return, in 1507, begins the proper era of his greatness, In 1520, he again visited the Netherlands, probably for amusement only. His fame spread far and wide. Maximilian I appointed him his court-painter, and Charles V confirmed him in this office, bestowing upon him, at the same time, the painter's

coat of arms, viz., three escutcheons argent, in a deep azure field. Dürer was in favor with high and low. All the artists and learned men of his time honored and loved him, and his early death, in 1528, was greatly lamented. Profound application, great facility in the mechanical part of his art, and a remarkable talent of imitation, were the characteristics of Dürer, and enabled him to exert a great influence on the character of German art. He was the first in Germany who taught the rules of perspective, and of the proportions of the human body, according to mathematical principles. His treatise on proportions was occasioned, it is said, by his studies on the picture of Adam and Eve. He not only made use of the burin, like his predecessors, but was also the inventor of etching, or, if not the inventor, the first who excelled in the art. He invented the method of printing wood-cuts with two colors. His great mathematical knowledge enabled him to form a regular system of rules for drawing and painting. He wrote the first book on fortification in Germany, and showed how to cast the letters of the alphabet according to fixed proportions, by geometrical calculations. He was particularly eminent as a portrait painter. He had the power of catching the exact expression of the features, and of delineating all the pas sions. Among his best engravings in copper are his Fortune, Melancholy, Adam and Eve in Paradise, St. Hubert, St. Jerome, and the Smaller Passion (so called), in 16 plates. Among his best wood-cuts are the Greater Passion (so called), in 13 plates; the Smaller Passion, with the frontispiece, 37 pieces; the Revelation of St. John, with the frontispiece, 15 plates; the Life of Mary, 2 prints, with the frontispiece. Bartsch, however, has made it more than probable, that Dürer himself did not engrave in wood. He only made the drawings on wooden tablets, which were then cut by form-cutters, of whom there were many skilful ones at that time. Dúrer has, also, much merit as a writer. He labored to purify and elevate the German language, in which he was assisted by his friend, W. Pirkheimer. His writings, which were afterwards translated into Latin, French, &c., were published, in a collected form, at Arnheim, by J. Jansen (1603, folio). J. J. Roth has written a life of him (Leipsic, 1791).

DURESS, in law, is restraint or compulsion; and it is a general principle, that a contract made under compulsion is not binding; and many acts will be excused

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on this ground, which would otherwise be blamable. There may be very different degrees of constraint, from absolute necessity down to a slight motive of fear; and the motives of fear may be of very different strength; for, if a man's life is endangered by his refusal to do an act, the law considers him to be under the highest compulsion, and contracts made under such motives are not binding. Duress may take place in two different ways: 1. by actual imprisonment, and, 2. by threats, per minas. If a man be illegally confined to compel him to sign a deed, he may avoid it; but, if he be legally imprisoned, and, to gain his liberty, signs a deed or agreement, it will bind him. This is not the duress contemplated by the law. Compulsion will excuse acts, which, done voluntarily, and from choice, would be capital crimes; for, by compulsion of an enemy, a man may do acts which, had they been of his free choice, would have been treason, and yet be excused. But the evil committed must be in some proportion to that feared, as a man would not be excused for homicide, to avoid even a serious injury to himself. But in regard to civil transactions, a smaller degree of restraint will be the ground of avoiding an obligation. It has been adjudged that, if one make a deed to avoid the duress done by merely taking his cattle, in other words, to procure their liberation, if they were unlawfully detained, the deed may be avoided. A son may allege the duress of a father, a husband that of his wife, a servant that of his master, and a master that of his servant, in avoidance of a deed. A marriage, as well as any other contract, made by one under duress, may, on this ground, be avoided.

DUROC, Michael, duke of Friuli, grandmarshal of the palace, senator, general of division, grand-cordon of the legion of honor, and of nearly all the orders of Europe, was born at Pont-à-Mousson, in 1772. His father was of an ancient family of Auvergne; having become a captain and knight of St. Louis, he married, and established himself in Lorraine. Young Duroc was early destined for the army, and studied at the military school of Pont-àMousson. March 1, 1792, he was made lieutenant of artillery. He then served in the republican armies. Honorable mention is made of his name in the bulletins of the Italian army, particularly at the siege of Mantua, and at the battle of Sismone, in 1796. He served, during the first campaign in Italy, as aid-de-camp of the general of artillery, Lespinasse.

Being subsequently appointed aid-de-camp to general Bonaparte, he soon made himself conspicuous for coolness, courage and ability. He distinguished himself at the battle of Grimolano, where he was wounded, and his horse was killed under him. At the passage of the Izonso, in Friuli, he was mentioned as one of the bravest and most able officers. The title of duke of Friuli, which he received ten years afterwards, was chosen in allusion to his conduct at Izonso. Duroc followed general Bonaparte into Egypt, and was promoted to the rank of chief of battalion the 25th of Brumaire, year VI. During this campaign, in which his services were of the greatest value, his name was again mentioned with honor, after the battle of Salahia, the successful result of which was mainly owing to his valor. During the expedition into Syria, at the siege of Jaffa, Duroc, seeing the grenadiers falling at the foot of the breach, and wavering, put himself at their head, and engaged, hand to hand, with several Turks. The army, seeing him disappear in a tower which was defended with great fury, gave him up for lost, but soon received him with shouts on seeing him appear on the top, master of the tower and of the ramparts. After having distinguished himself, on several occasions, before St. Jean d'Acre, he was severely wounded by the bursting of a howitzer, in one of the last assaults made during the siege, the most bloody and obstinate in the military annals of France. He distinguished himself no less at the battle of Aboukir. Being named chief of brigade, he accompanied general Bonaparte on his return to France; he was almost the only aid-de-camp of the commander-in-chief who survived the expedition four had been killed in the campaign. Duroc took part in the events of the 18th Brumaire, and, a few days after, was sent to the court of Berlin, where he was received with great distinction. This embassy contributed to preserve the peace between these two countries. War continuing between France and Austria, the first consul set out on the campaign, which was terminated at Marengo. Duroc accompanied him as first aid-de-camp. His name is honorably mentioned in the account of the passage of the Ticino, where he was one of the first to leap into a boat, at the head of the grenadiers. After the peace of Amiens, he was sent, on diplomatic missions, to the courts of St. Petersburg, Stockholm and Copenhagen. On his return, he was promoted to the rank of general of brigade and gov

At

ernor of the Tuileries; and, on the 9th Fructidor, year X, he was made general of division. When the first consul assumed the title of emperor, he made Duroc grand marshal of the palace. The courtier and favorite never ceased to be a soldier. He accompanied Napoleon in all his campaigns. In 1805, he was charged with a mission to the Prussian court, at the time when Napoleon was marching against Vienna. He rejoined the army previously to the battle of Austerlitz, and took the command of the division of grenadiers, which had been left without a head, in consequence of the wound of Oudinot. At the battle of Austerlitz, he also commanded a division of this chosen corps. During the campaign in Prussia, in 1806, Duroc was commissioned to sign the treaty of peace with the king of Saxony; and, at a later period, he was the principal negotiator of the armistice which preceded the peace of Tilsit. He followed Napoleon to Spain, and during the campaign of Wagram. the battle of Esslingen, he arranged and directed his batteries in such a way as to arrest the progress of the enemy in a decisive movement. After the battle of Znaym, Napoleon sent him to the archduke Charles, to negotiate an armistice. On the return from the Russian campaign, in 1812, Duroc reorganized the imperial guard, which, at this time, and on several other occasions, he commanded. Before his last departure for the army, he was appointed senator. Duroc finally followed Napoleon to Germany, in 1813, and was killed, May 23, after the battle of Bautzen, in entering the village of Merkersdorf, by a ball, which also killed general Kirschner, with whom he was conversing behind the emperor. This ball was the last which fell on that day; and the piece from which it was discharged was at so great a distance, and surrounded by so many obstacles, that it is inconceivable how it could have reached the place. Napoleon visited Duroc on his death-bed, and mingled tears with his farewell. He lost in him a true counsellor, a faithful friend, and one of his bravest officers. The deaths of the duke of Friuli and of the duke of Montebello are the two events on which Napoleon showed the greatest sensibility. Successively charged with the most important duties, military and political, the duke of Friuli was ever remarkable for a moderation rare in a soldier, for ability, disinterestedness, modesty, firmness, and a presence of mind which never deserted him.

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